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Biotechnology and Various Environmental Concerns: An Introduction

Ravi K. Gangwar1, Rajesh Bajpai2,3, and Jaspal Singh4

1Institute of Environmental Science, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Soil Science, Páter Károly utca 1, Gödöllo, 2100, Hungary

2CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (CSIR-NBRI), Plant Diversity Systematics and Herbarium Division, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226001, India

3Biodiversity, Biomonitoring & Climate Change Division, Environment, Agriculture and Education Society, Anand Vihar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, 243122, India

4Bareilly College, Department of Environmental Science, Kalibari Road, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, 243001, India

1.1 Introduction

Károly Ereky, a Hungarian engineer, first used the term "biotechnology" in 1919 to describe the science and techniques that allow products to be made from raw materials with the help of living organisms. Biotechnology is broadly defined as using living organisms or the products of living organisms for human benefit (or to benefit human surroundings) to make a product or solve a problem [1]. This technology has been used for thousands of years and involves working with cells and bacteria to produce various products useful for mankind. The best examples include the fermentation used to make breads, cheese, yogurt, and alcoholic beverages such as beer and wine. However, modern biotechnology is a multidisciplinary subject that involves the sharing of knowledge between different areas of science such as cell and molecular biology, genetics, microbiology, anatomy and physiology, computer science, biochemistry, and recombinant DNA technology (rDNA technology).

The foundation of modern biotechnology was laid down with the advancements in science and technology during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Between 1850 and 1860, Louis Pasteur developed the process of pasteurization. By 1860, he also concluded that organisms did not occur as a result of spontaneous generation; all cells arise from preexisting cells. At the beginning of 1857, Gregor Mendel developed genetics and the Principles of Heredity, where he cross-pollinated pea plants to examine traits such as petal color, seed color, and seed texture. In 1869, J. F. Miescher isolated "nuclein" from the nuclei of white blood cells, which contain nucleic acids. In 1882, German cytologist Walter Flemming described that during mitosis, thread-like bodies (chromosomes) were equally distributed to daughter cells during cell division. In 1896, Eduard Buchner showed that biochemical transformations can take place without the use of cells by converting sugar to ethyl alcohol using yeast extracts. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered Penicillium inhibited the growth of a bacterium called Staphylococcus aureus, responsible for skin disease in humans.

Many novel experiments were conducted during the 20th century, like identification of DNA as the genetic material by the classical Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in 1952, followed by the double helical structure of DNA proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. In 1978, Boyer was able to isolate a gene for insulin (a hormone to regulate blood sugar levels) from human genome using biotechnology. In 1997, Ian Wilmut was successful in cloning a sheep named "Dolly." In 2003, the Human Genome Project completed the sequencing of the human genome.

The multidisciplinary nature of modern biotechnology and the areas of its application are given in Figure 1.1 and Table 1.1.

Biotechnology has revolutionized diagnostics and therapeutics; however, lethal virus diseases like avian flu, Chikungunya, Ebola, influenza A, SARS, West Nile, Zika virus, and the most recent coronavirus have posed the greatest risks to humans. Scientists and researchers are continuously adapting to various biotechniques to tackle these threats. Moreover, biotechnology has provided novel opportunities for the sustainable production of various products and services. Additionally, environmental concerns encourage the use of biotechnology for biomonitoring as well as ecologically friendly chemical synthesis, waste minimization, and pollution management (decontamination of water, air, and soil).

In Chapter 2, the importance, contribution to agriculture and environment, and future prospects of plant biotechnology have been discussed. To ensure that environmental resources are preserved for future generations, deliberate efforts must be undertaken to identify alternatives and ways to use them sustainably. This chapter seeks to provide an introduction to plant biotechnology, covering its fundamentals, where research has taken it thus far, the need for it, its place in agriculture, and how it might help solve agricultural and environmental problems. The chapter places a strong emphasis on debunking myths about genetically modified organisms (GMOs), including how they are made in the plant kingdom, the advantages they provide, and the problems they have. The reader will have a better grasp of how scientific ideas developed for the enhancement of crops for farmers and those who depend on agriculture are used in the actual world.

Figure 1.1 Multidisciplinary nature of modern biotechnology and the areas of its application.

Source: NCERT [2].

Table 1.1 Some common areas of biotechnology.

Source: Adapted from Gupta et al. [3].

Furthermore, metals and hydrocarbons are considered hazardous materials because they have the potential to cause cancer and mutagenic consequences in humans. Forest fires, transportation, and various industrial operations are the main causes of this environmental pollution. These metals and hydrocarbons are major constituents of petroleum. The effects of petroleum and hydrocarbons on microbes, soils, plants, and human health are discussed in Chapter 3. As microorganisms extract xenobiotic organic and inorganic substances from the environment and totally mineralize them into carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic compounds during biodegradation, this chapter also discusses the functions of microorganisms in the breakdown of hydrocarbons and several processes used in the process, including enzymes, biosurfactants, and immobilization. Additionally, the function of aerobic and anaerobic pathways as well as several parameters for hydrocarbon breakdown are described.

Recent decades have seen an increase in environmental contamination as a result of several increasing anthropogenic activities. A popular and efficient technique for eliminating hazardous material from a contaminated environment is "bioremediation." Bioremediation is extensively involved in the degradation, eradication, immobilization, or detoxification of a wide range of chemical wastes and physically dangerous compounds from the environment through the all-inclusive activity of microorganisms. Heavy metals, nuclear waste, pesticides, greenhouse gases, and hydrocarbons are among the pollutants that threaten the environment and public health due to their toxicity. The organisms involved in bioremediation, as well as the variables influencing microbial bioremediation, are all covered in Chapter 4. Additionally, this chapter provides details on the types and methods of bioremediation. It also covers the advantages, disadvantages, and drawbacks of bioremediation.

Chapter 5 makes an attempt to evaluate the function of soil biodiversity in environmental sustainability as it relates to sustaining terrestrial life and biodiversity, climate change, hydrological dynamics, and environmental remediation. Numerous soil processes that provide a variety of ecosystem goods and services are driven by soil biodiversity. Soil organisms are closely linked to a number of ecosystem services, including nutrient cycling, climate regulation, water infiltration, and purification, through their activity and interactions. The effort to link soil biota to specific functions that support soil-based ecosystem services is difficult due to the complicated interaction between soil biodiversity and ecosystem function. Its ability to provide different ecosystem services is also significantly influenced by other environmental conditions and soil management practices. Therefore, in order to maximize biodiversity's potential for environmental sustainability, it must be comprehended, evaluated, and managed sustainably.

The main constituents of soil biodiversity are microorganisms. Plant growth-promoting...