List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Packaging of the past. Figure 1.2 Survey of packaging use: the needs fulfilled by packaging. Figure 2.1 Packaging materials chemical engineering unit operations. (a) Organogram of unit operations involved in the life cycle of commercial packaging. (b) Raw materials. Figure 2.2 Commodities and principal types of raw materials used for packaging. Figure 2.3 Making metal, glass, and paper packaging raw materials, where all processes end with inspection and testing. Figure 2.4 Types of glasses used in packaging applications. Figure 3.1 Types of common glass bottles: clear or 'flint' (a, d, f), amber (b, e), and green (c) for foods and medicines. Figure 3.2 (a-e) Tinplate structural profiles and chemical composition (not drawn to scale). Figure 3.3 Tin cans using tin-plated steel (a) and manufactured in two ways (b). 'Crown' top of a beer bottle (c). Also using tin-plated steel, a key-opened spam can showing the soldering line (d). The two means, drawn and wall-ironed (DWI) and drawn and redrawn (DRD), of fabricating the can body and rib-making to plate for additional strength (e). Figure 3.4 (a-c) Polymeric materials, percentage use, and applications. HDPE, high-density polyethylene; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride. Figure 3.5 (a-c) Examples of structure, composition, formation, and degradation of polymers. Figure 3.6 (a-c) Polymeric materials and physicochemical properties. Figure 3.7 Plastic packaging for general recycling (a), mixed recycling (b), and non-recycling (c) from a vertical fill, form, and seal (VFFS) machine. LLDPE, linear low-density polyethylene; PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PP, polypropylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PVdC, polyvinylidene chloride. Figure 3.8 The cross-sectional structure of plastic laminates, bottles, and trays. PET, polyethylene terephthalate. Figure 3.9 (a-c) The make-up of the major fractions of paper fibre materials. Figure 3.10 Chemical composition (a) and physical properties (b) of wood pulp. Figure 3.11 Colours, opacifiers, and colorants. Figure 3.12 Anthrone and derivative compound colours used in packaging (subtle changes to structure and functionality yield different colours). Figure 3.13 Opacification (a) and surface-reflecting (b) finishes. Figure 3.14 Plasticisers, alloying agents, and intercalation agents. Figure 3.15 Anti-oxidants and preservatives used in packaging materials. DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate; DEHS, di-2-ethylhexyl sebacate; EDTA, ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid; EVOH, ethylene vinyl alcohol. Figure 3.16 Water and gas penetration. Figure 3.17 Inducement of chemical change and leaching. (a) Inducement of chemical change and leaching. (b) Fundamental chemical and material tests used to follow product alteration. Figure 3.18 The burst pressure apparatus used with foil lidding and heat or pressure-sealed laminate blister packs. CFF, cold-form filling; COC, cyclic olefin copolymer; gsm, grams per metre squared; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; OPA, oriented polyamide; PCTFE, polychlorotrifluoroethylene; PE, polyethylene; PETG, glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate; PP, polypropylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PVdC, polyvinylidene chloride. Figure 3.19 Contemporary issues in packaging. Figure 4.1 Physics of packaging materials: key elements (a), mechanical parameters (b), and graphical comparison of indices (c). CB, cardboard; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; PC, polycarbonate; WLP, white-lined paperboard. Figure 4.2 Packaging: surface and structural morphology. (a) Surface-whitened, treated cream paperboard fibres. (b) Unbleached brown paperboard fibres. (c) Oiled outer surface tin-coated steel can roughness. (d) Bleached and sized smooth white paper. Figure 4.3 Surface form and texture. (a) Wetting phenomena with examples. (b) Packaging surface modification by wax coating. PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PMMA, poly(methyl methacrylate); PP, polypropylene; SEM, scanning electron microscopy. Figure 4.4 Packaging: surface pigmentation and printability. WLBPB, white-lined, bleached-pulp paperboard; WLMPB, white-lined, mechanical-pulp paperboard. Figure 4.5 Packaging: high-resolution evaluation of the surface. 3D, three-dimensional; AFM, atomic force microscope/microscopy. Figure 4.6 Wettability, melting, polymorphism, and crystallites. OPP, oriented polypropylene; PCTFE, polychlorotrifluoroethylene. Figure 4.7 Crush, piercing, and tear tests for the toughness of paper-, polymer-, metal-, and glass-based packaging. PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene. Figure 5.1 The process of making paper pulp. Figure 5.2 The modern Fourdrinier process of making paper. Figure 5.3 The mechanical and physicochemical properties of paper: tensile index, tensile strength (Technical Association of the Paper and Pulp Industry [TAPPI] method T494), thickness, density, and grammage according to I'Anson et al. [15] and Nicholson and Page [16]. Figure 5.4 Thermal interventions: manufacture of blister pack or 'pop-out' medicines. PVC, polyvinyl chloride; Tm, melting point; Ts, softening point (or softening temperature). Figure 5.5 Corona discharge: plasma treatment, curing, and printability enhancement. Figure 5.6 Bottles and jars. (a) Bodies and closures based on differing formats and materials (i-vii). (b) Casting of containers by blow moulding, injection moulding, and thermoforming of a variety of bottles. PET, polyethylene terephthalate. Figure 5.7 (a-f) Pouches, trays, and wallets. MAP, modified atmosphere packaging; PET, polyethylene terephthalate. Figure 6.1 Packaging for various applications. (a) Sample requirements and the demands placed on the container. (b) Pharmaceutical blister pack design, damage, and degradation (i-viii). PE, polyethylene. Figure 6.2 The hermetically sealed tin can. Figure 6.3 Can lacquers: an absence of lacquer on the outer surface (a), standard epoxy-phenolic lacquer for non-acidic contents (b), zinc oxide-containing epoxy-phenolic lacquer (c) for high-sulfur foods or those with acidic contents, and an epoxy-lacquered drawn and wall-ironed aluminium soft drinks can (d). Figure 6.4 Nicolas Appert, the inventor of routine hermetic preservation of food in the first detailed 'canning' process using bottles in the Napoleonic era (1800s). He described canning in his seminal work as a means of routine preservation. Figure 6.5 Metered filling operations by volume or by weight. FFS, fill, form, and seal. Figure 6.6 Modern sterilisation and pasteurisation: the effect of heat treatment on the product. (a) Thermal deactivation of microbes and initiation of physicochemical change. (b) The sterilisation process and amassed lethality by calculation of the lethality of a process (F-value). (c) The processes initiated during thermal treatment. Figure 6.7 Retorting and high-pressure steam treatment. The Fahrenheit scale continues to be widely used; for reference purposes Fahrenheit and Celsius can be converted as (°F = (°C × 1.8)?+?32). Figure 6.8 Cobalt-60 (60Co) and gamma-irradiation facility. Figure 6.9 Hyperbaric sterilisation and...