The Relationship between Trade-Related Environmental Measures in Multilateral Environmental Agreements and the WTO Law

Name: The Relationship between Trade-Related Environmental Measures in Multilateral Environmental Agreements and the WTO Law
Brand: Nomos
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Lidia Rieder(Autor*in)

Nomos (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 28. April 2020

339 Seiten

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Cover
INTRODUCTION
Chapter I: Legal Nature of MEAs, TREMs and of their Conflict with the WTO System
1. Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs)
1.1. Emergence, Subject and Principles
1.2. MEAs as Opposed to Unilateral Environmental Measures
1.3. Necessity of MEA Negotiations
1.4. Definition of an MEA
1.5. Legal Nature of MEAs
1.6. Effectiveness of MEAs
1.7. Interference with Other Areas of International Law
2. Trade-Related Environmental Measures (TREMs) in MEAs
2.1. Definition
2.2. Types of TREMs
2.3. Objectives
2.4. Functions
2.5. Ways of Imposition
2.6. Legal Status
2.7. Necessity of TREMs
2.8. Effectiveness of TREMs
3. MEAs vs. Provisions of the WTO System
3.1. Legal Nature of the Conflict between MEAs and the WTO System
3.2. Conflicting Provisions in the GATT
3.2.1. Article I GATT
3.2.2. Article III GATT
3.2.2.1. "Like" Products
3.2.2.2. Process and Production Methods (PPMs)
3.2.3. Article XI GATT
3.2.4. Article XIII GATT
3.3. Potential Conflicts with Other WTO Agreements
3.3.1. GATS
3.3.2. TBT Agreement
3.3.3. SPS Agreement
3.3.4. TRIPS Agreement
3.4. Issues Accompanying the Relationship between MEAs and the WTO System
4. Types of Conflicts
4.1. Regarding the Legal Status of a TREM
4.2. Regarding the Parties of a Conflict
4.2.1. Conflicts between Parties
4.2.2. Conflicts between a Party and a Non-Party
5. Reasons for Clarifying the Relationship between MEAs and the WTO System
5.1. Possible Disputes over Imposition of a TREM under an MEA
5.2. The "Chill Effect"
5.3. Expansion of Scope
6. Suitable Forum for the Resolution of Conflicts between MEAs and the WTO System
6.1. Judicial Resolution of Conflicts between MEAs and the WTO System
6.2. Resolution of Conflicts on the part of MEAs
6.2.1. Clarification while Negotiating
6.2.2. Provisions Establishing the Relationship to Other International Agreements
6.2.3. MEAs' Preambles
6.3. The WTO as a Suitable Forum for the Conflict Resolution
7. Interim Conclusion
Chapter II: Environmental Values in Public International Law and in the GATT/WTO System
1. MEAs vs. World Trade Law
1.1. WTO and MEAs - Equal Legal Regimes?
1.1.1. De jure Equality
1.1.2. De facto Supremacy
1.2. Jus Cogens
1.3. Lex Posterior
1.4. "Relating to the Same Subject Matter"
1.5. Lex specialis
1.6. Supremacy of the WTO as a "Self-Contained Regime" (a special case of lex specialis)
1.7. Article 31 VCLT - Interpretation Methods
2. Incorporation of Environmental Values in the WTO System
2.1. Preamble of the WTO Agreement
2.2. Article XX GATT
2.3. Legal Status of DSB Interpretations
2.4. Interpretation of Article's XX (b) GATT Necessity Requirement
2.4.1. US - Section 337 of the Tariff Act
2.4.2. Thailand - Cigarettes
2.4.3. US - Tuna I, II
2.4.4. Korea - Beef
2.4.6. Brazil - Tyres
2.5. Interpretation of the "Relating to" Requirement
2.5.1. US - Reformulated Gasoline
2.5.2. US - Tuna II
2.6. Interpretation of the Chapeau
2.7. Panels and the AB on PPM-based Measures
2.8. Interpretation of the Term "Likeness"
2.9. Extraterritoriality and PPM-based Measures
2.10. Incorporation of Environmental Values in Other WTO Agreements
2.10.1. GATS
2.10.2. TBT Agreement
2.10.3. SPS Agreement
2.10.4. TRIPS Agreement
2.10.5. SCM Agreement
2.11. Applicability of MEAs as non-WTO Law in WTO Proceedings
2.11.1. DSU Provisions Regarding Applicable Law
2.11.2. The Use of MEAs for Interpretation
2.11.3. The Use of MEAs to Justify a Violation of WTO Agreements
2.12. Incorporation of MEAs into the WTO System under a Waiver
3. Interim Conclusion
Chapter III: GATT/WTO "Environmental" Cases
1. Pre-WTO Cases
1.1. United States - Prohibition of Imports of Tuna and Tuna Products from Canada. Report of the Panel adopted on 22 February 1982
1.2. Canada - Measures Affecting Exports of Unprocessed Herring and Salmon. Report of the Panel adopted on 22 March 1988
1.3. Canada's Landing Requirement for Pacific Coast Salmon and Herring. Final Report of the FTA Panel, 16 October 1989
1.4. Thailand - Restrictions on Importation of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes. Report of the Panel adopted on 7 November 1990
1.5. United States Restrictions on Imports of Tuna (US - Tuna I). Panel Report not adopted, circulated on 3 September 1991
1.6. United States - Restrictions on Imports of Tuna (US - Tuna II). Report of the Panel not adopted, circulated on 16 June 1994
1.7. United States - Taxes on Automobiles (US - Automobiles). Ruling not adopted, circulated on 11 October 1994
2. WTO Cases
2.1. United States - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline (US - Gasoline). Ruling adopted on 20 May 1996
2.2. European Communities - Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (EC - Hormones). AB Report adopted on 13 February 1998
2.3. United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products (US - Shrimp). Ruling adopted on 6 November 1998
2.4. United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products. Recourse to Art. 21.5 DSU by Malaysia (US - Shrimp 21.5)
2.5. European Communities - Measures Affecting Asbestos and Products Containing Asbestos (EC - Asbestos). AB Report adopted on 5 April 2001
2.6. European Communities - Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products (EC - Biotech). Report of the Panel adopted on 21 November 2006
2.7. Brazil - Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres (Brazil - Tyres). AB Report adopted on 17 December 2007
2.8. United States - Measures Concerning the Importation, Marketing and Sale of Tuna and Tuna Products (US - Tuna II (Mexico)). Report adopted on 3 December 2015
3. Interim Conclusion
Chapter IV: Trade and Environment as an issue in GATT/WTO
1. EMIT Group
1.1. Establishment of the EMIT Group
1.2. Contribution of the EMIT Group to the UNCED
1.3. Proposals of the EMIT Group Regarding TREMs in MEAs
1.3.1. The Ex Ante Approach
1.3.2. The Ex Post Approach
1.3.3. Other Proposals
1.4. Outcome of the EMIT Group
2. Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE) before the Doha Round of Negotiations
2.1. Establishment of the CTE
2.2. Report of the CTE to the Singapore Ministerial Conference
2.3. CTE Proposals 1995-1996
2.4. Proposals 1996-2002
2.4.1. Maintaining the Status Quo
2.4.2. Amending Article XX GATT
2.4.3. Granting Multi-Year Waivers and Developing Non-Binding Guidelines
2.4.4. Setting "Differentiated WTO Disciplines" for Trade Measures Pursuant to MEAs
2.4.5. Designing a Coherence Clause
2.4.6. Developing a Principles and Criteria Approach
2.4.7. Reversing the Burden of Proof under Article XX GATT and Developing a Code of Good Conduct
2.4.8. Developing Non-Binding Interpretative Guidelines
2.4.9. Developing an Understanding
2.4.10. Developing a Voluntary Consultative Mechanism (VCM)
2.4.11. Promoting Mutual Supportiveness and Deference
2.4.12. Chile's Proposal (the Example of UNCLOS)
2.4.13. Features Common for All Proposals
2.5. Pre-Doha Outcome
3. CTE in the Doha Round of Negotiations
3.1. Doha Declaration on Trade and Environment
3.2. CTE Special Sessions
3.2.1. Definition of an MEA
3.2.2. Party/Non-Party Issue
3.2.3. Specific Trade Obligations
3.2.4. Measures Explicitly Provided for and Mandatory
3.2.5. "Obligation de résultat"
3.2.6. Measures Taken Pursuant to MEAs
3.2.7. "Set Out in Multilateral Environmental Agreements"
3.2.8. Identification of STOs
3.2.9. WTO Conformity of STOs
3.3. Relationship between MEAs and the WTO Rules
3.4. Draft Ministerial Decision on Trade and the Environment
3.5. General Remarks on § 31 (i) of the Doha Declaration and on the CTESS work
3.5.1. Limits of the Mandate
3.5.2. Developing Countries vs. Developed Countries
3.6. Recent Developments / Current Situation
3.7. WTO and MEA Cooperation Model (the Example of CITES)
4. Interim Conclusion
Chapter V: Regionalization of the Trade/Environment Issue
1. Incorporation of Environmental Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements
1.1. Development of RTAs
1.1.1. Free Trade Agreements (FTAs)
1.1.2. Preferential Trade Agreements (PTAs)
1.1.2.1. Objectives of Environmental Provisions in PTAs
1.1.2.2. PTAs and Developing Countries
1.2. Options for Inclusion of Environmental Provisions in RTAs
1.3. Environmental Impact Assessments
1.4. Enforcement of RTAs' Environmental Provisions
1.5. MEAs in RTAs
1.5.1 Objectives of MEAs's Provisions in RTAs
1.5.1.1. Reaffirming MEAs' Importance
1.5.1.2. Clarifying the Relationship to MEAs
1.5.1.3. Fostering MEAs' Implementation
1.5.2. Implementation of MEAs under EU RTAs
1.5.3. Implementation of MEAs under US RTAs
1.6. Effect of Environment Inclusion in RTAs
2. The North American Free Trade Agreement between Mexico, the US and Canada (NAFTA)
2.1. Relationship to MEAs
2.2. North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC)
2.3. North American Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC)
2.4. NAFTA Dispute Settlement
2.5. NAFTA's Environmental Significance
3. US Preferential Trade Agreements
3.1. The Dominican Republic - Central America FTA (CAFTA-DR)
3.1.1. CAFTA-DR Environmental Review
3.1.2. CAFTA-DR Environmental Cooperation Agreement (ECA)
3.1.3. Provisions on MEAs
3.1.4. Implementation of CITES under the CAFTA-DR ECA Work Plan
3.2. The United States - Peru Trade Promotion Agreement (PTPA)
3.2.1. PTPA Environmental Review
3.2.2 Provisions on MEAs
3.2.2. Implementation of CITES under the PTPA
3.3. General Conclusions about Environmental Provisions in US RTAs
4. Integration of Environmental Policy in the EU and its Bilateral Trade Agreements
4.1. The Single European Act
4.2. The Treaty of Maastricht
4.3. Environmental Policy after the Treaty of Lisbon
4.4. Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and its "Environmental" Exceptions
4.5. MEAs in the EU Treaties
4.6. MEAs and the 7th Environment Action Programme
4.7. EU Environmental Success Factors
4.8. Balance of Trade and Environment in the EU
4.9. Digression: World Environment Organization as a Balancing Mechanism to the WTO
4.10. The EU as a Model for the Integration of Environmental Policy into the WTO
4.11. The Free Trade Agreement between the European Union and the Republic of Korea
4.11.1. Sustainability Impact Assessment
4.11.2. Trade and Sustainable Development Chapter
5. Regional Trade Agreements as a Platform for Integration of Environmental Provisions
5.1. Is the RTA Way Acceptable for the WTO?
5.2. Relationship between RTAs and the WTO
5.3. "Regionalization" of Trade/Environment Rules
5.4. Joint Environment and Trade Agreements
5.5. Can RTAs Replace MEAs?
5.6. Significance of the WTO in the MEA Debate
CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LEGAL AND OTHER DOCUMENTS
International Agreements
Final Documents and Declarations of International Conferences
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 (GATT) documents
GATT Group on Environmental Measures and International Trade
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Committee on Trade and Environment
Committee on Trade and the Environment (Special Sessions)
GATT/WTO Case Law
Regional Trade Agreements
Bilateral Trade Agreements
European Union
European Court of Justice (ECJ)
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
International Law Commission (ILC)
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL)
International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) Research Foundation
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
Other

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