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Gavin Reid is an experienced teacher, psychologist and author, and the owner/director of Dr Gavin Reid Education Consultants Ltd. He was formerly Senior Lecturer in the Department of Educational Studies at the University of Edinburgh, UK, and Visiting Professor in the Department of Education and Counseling Psychology and Special Education at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. He is a director of the Red Rose School in Lancashire, UK, and a director of Global Educational Consultancies (GEC) based in Cairo, Egypt. He is chair of the BDA accreditation board, an ambassador for the Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre and a consultant to Institute for Child Education and Psychology Europe (ICEPE). He is the author and editor of 27 books, and has lectured to thousands of parents and professionals in 70 countries. His work has been recognized with several educational awards, many of his books are used as course texts throughout the UK and in other countries, and they have been translated into Italian, French, Polish and Croatian.
About the Author xiv
Other Books by Gavin Reid xvi
Foreword xviii
Preface xxi
Chapter 1 Defining Dyslexia 1
Defining Dyslexia 2
Purpose of Definitions 4
How Should We Define Dyslexia? 5
Definitions 7
Barriers to Implementing Policy 11
Rose Review and Dyslexia 11
Education for Learners with Dyslexia 12
Different Perspectives and Agenda 14
Points for Reflection 15
Chapter 2 Explaining Dyslexia: The Range of Research 17
Causal Modelling Framework 18
Genetic Factors 19
Neurobiological Factors 20
Visual and Temporal Processing 20
Magnocellular Visual System 20
Procedural Timing 22
Hemispheric Symmetry 23
Processing Speed 24
Phonological Processing 25
Phonological Awareness and Multisensory Programmes 25
Morphological Processing 26
Glue Ear 27
Cognitive Skills 29
Metacognition 29
Environmental Factors 29
Additional Language Learning 30
Dyslexia in Different Orthographies 31
Self-disclosure in Adults 33
Points for Reflection 34
Chapter 3 Assessment: Issues and Considerations 35
The Context 35
Assessment Aims 37
Discrepancy Criteria 37
Listening Comprehension 38
Componential Model of Reading 38
Curriculum Focus 39
Why an Assessment? 40
How? The Assessment Process 40
Effect of an Assessment 42
Assessment-Points to Consider 42
Some Other Considerations 42
Assessment and Inclusion 46
The Bilingual Learner 46
Points for Reflection 47
Chapter 4 Identifying Needs 48
The Context 48
Information Processing 49
Factors That Can Prompt Concern 50
Linking Assessment with Intervention and Support 52
Key Aspects of an IEP 52
The Overlap 53
Assessing Performances 53
Criteria: Summary 54
Whose Responsibility? 57
Early Identification 57
Models of Identification 59
Expert/Intervention-Attainment 59
Barriers to Learning 63
Whole-School Involvement 64
Points for Reflection 65
Chapter 5 Assessment: Approaches and Resources 66
The Use of Tests-Points to Ponder 67
Assessment and Information Processing 67
Cognitive Measures 68
Assessment of Processing Skills 69
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP-2) 70
Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests 71
Gray Oral Reading Tests (GORT-5) 71
Standardised/Psychometric Criteria 71
Standardisation 72
Psychometric 73
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II and III) 74
Comment 74
Phonological Representation and Assessment 75
Screening 76
Curriculum Assessment 79
Miscue Analysis 80
Assessment in Context 81
Assessment for Learning 82
Metacognitive Assessment 83
Multiple Intelligences Approaches 85
A Components Approach 86
Observational Assessment 88
Observational Framework 88
Systematic Observation 92
Summary 93
Points for Reflection 94
Chapter 6 Reading-Social, Cultural and Government Perspectives 95
The Social Context for Literacy 95
Literacy and Culture 95
Defining Literacy 96
Critical Literacy 98
Challenging Assumptions 101
Government Initiatives 102
Literacy Standards and International Comparisons 104
PISA Study 106
Literacy Initiatives 106
Points for Reflection 107
Chapter 7 The Acquisition of Literacy 108
What is Reading? 108
Factors to Consider 109
Reading as a Process 110
Reading Skills 111
Reading Practice 112
Developing Reading Skills 112
Key Factors 112
The Development of Reading 114
Stages of Reading Development 117
Limitations of the Stage Model of Reading 119
Reading and Memory 120
Relationship Between Phonology and Orthography 120
Dyslexia and Different Orthographies 121
Points for Reflection 122
Chapter 8 Reading Models and Methods 123
Bottom-Up and Top-Down Models 123
Connectionist Models 125
Balance Model of Reading 126
Method of Teaching Reading 127
Developing Reading Skills 131
Teaching Reading-the Debate 132
Reading Interventions 135
Methodological Issues in Reading Intervention Research 137
Factors to Consider in Developing and Using Reading Approaches 138
The Literacy Experience 141
Framework for Teaching 142
Summary 143
Points for Reflection 144
Chapter 9 The Acquisition of Literacy: Spelling 145
Why is Spelling Difficult? 145
Systems Involved in Spelling 146
Spelling Skills 148
Spelling Development 149
Spelling Policy 150
Spelling Strategies 150
Spelling Materials 156
Points for Reflection 157
Chapter 10 Expressive Writing 158
The Importance of Writing 158
Relationship Between Writing and Spelling 159
Expressive Writing: The Process 160
Cognitive Skills Associated with Writing 160
Writing in the Curriculum 161
Developing Metacognitive Skills through Writing 162
Metacognitive Strategies for Writing 163
Strategies for Writing 165
Motivation and Writing 166
Planning 167
Pre-writing Framework 167
Developing Ideas 169
Handwriting 171
Summary 172
Points for Reflection 173
Chapter 11 Teaching Approaches: Points to Consider 174
Overview of Approaches 175
The Context 176
Assessment and the Curriculum 177
The Learner 178
Programmes and Approaches-Some Considerations 179
Overlearning 182
Principles 183
Issues 183
Points for Reflection 186
Chapter 12 Supporting Literacy: Individualised Programmes 188
Criteria for Selection 189
Orton-Gillingham (OG) 192
The Hickey Multisensory Language Course 194
Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System 195
Letterland 197
Reading Recovery 198
Toe by Toe: Multisensory Manual for Teachers and Parents 202
Alternative Approaches 203
Comment-Issues to Consider 209
Points for Reflection 210
Chapter 13 Supporting Literacy: Approaches and Strategies 211
Phonics Instructional Approaches 211
Language Experience 215
Other Support Approaches 216
Phonological Approaches 218
High-Interest Books-History 219
Barrington Stoke (www.barringtonstoke.com) 220
Start to Finish Books 220
Differentiated Texts 221
Visual Factors 221
Motor Aspects 224
Assisted Learning 225
Summary 229
Points for Reflection 230
Chapter 14 Supporting Learning 231
Effective Learning 231
Key Points about Learning 233
The Learning Process 233
Realising Potential 236
Zone of Proximal Development 237
Developing Learning Skills 237
Learning Strategies 238
Multiple Intelligences 241
Study Skills 244
Set Goals 246
Feedback 246
Memory-Some Strategies 247
The Role of Self-esteem 249
Creativity and the 'Gifted' Dyslexic Student 249
Summary 250
Points for Reflection 251
Chapter 15 Inclusion: Curriculum Access 252
The Context 252
Responding to the Diverse Needs of Students 254
The Challenges 255
Meeting Curriculum Objectives 257
Index for Inclusion 257
Tensions and Contradictions 259
Assessment, Need and Accountability 260
Removing Barriers to Achievement 261
Interventions and Inclusion 261
Making the School Inclusive 264
Equity 265
Principles of Inclusion 266
An Inclusive School 268
Healthy Schools 268
Supporting Inclusion 269
Staff Support and Training 270
Student Advocacy 272
Dyslexia and Self-advocacy 273
Staff Support 274
Key Factors 275
Points for Reflection 275
Chapter 16 Inclusion in Secondary Education: Accessing the Curriculum 276
Responsibility 277
Features of Secondary Schools 277
Differentiation and Curricular Development 280
Differentiation and Assessment 281
Subject Areas 281
Multiple Intelligences in Secondary Schools 294
Physical Education 295
Staff Development 296
Challenges: Key Areas 297
Points for Reflection 299
Chapter 17 Inclusion: Further and Higher Education and the Workplace 300
Further and Higher Education 301
The Workplace 313
Concluding Comment 315
Points for Reflection 316
Chapter 18 The Role of Parents 317
Parental Concerns 318
Parental Support 320
Parents' Challenges 322
Parents as Partners 324
Points for Reflection 324
Chapter 19 Multilingualism: Challenges and Responses 325
Background and Context 325
Cultural Factors 326
Culture-fair Assessment 330
Teaching 331
Key Principles 332
Metacognitive Awareness/Schema 333
Concluding Points 334
Points for Reflection 334
Chapter 20 The Overlap-Dyslexia: Attention, Coordination, Auditory Processing and Numeracy 335
Introduction 335
The Overlap Dilemma 336
Attention Issues 337
Identifying and Defining Attention Difficulties 340
Intervention 342
ADHD and Creativity 345
Coordination, Movement and Handwriting 346
Intervention Strategies-15 Tasks to Try 347
Handwriting 348
Dysgraphia Strategies 349
Early Intervention 350
Auditory Processing 351
Diagnosis and Overlap 351
Management of APD 352
Intervention 352
Difficulty with Numbers 354
Reading in Mathematics 356
Diagnosing Dyscalculia 356
Intervention 357
Points for Reflection 359
Chapter 21 The Use of Computers and Technology 360
Introduction 360
Approaches Using New Technology 363
Resources-Computer Programs 364
British Dyslexia Association New Technologies Committee (BDA NTC) 365
Comment 366
Points for Reflection 366
Chapter 22 Positive Dyslexia 367
The Background 367
Five Key Factors 368
How Dyslexia Affects Children's Learning 370
Metacognition 370
Encourage Creativity 371
Provide Feedback to Students About Their Own Personal Progress 371
Encourage Self-assessment 371
Develop Student Responsibility 372
Enhancing Creativity 372
Concluding Comment 374
Points for Reflection 374
Appendix 1 Some Popular Tests for Dyslexia that Can Be Used by Teachers 375
Test of Phonological Awareness, Second Edition: Plus (TOPA-2+) (2004) 375
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition (CTOPP-2) (2013) 375
Launch Into Reading Success-Test of Phonological Awareness (1997) 376
GORT-5: Gray Oral Reading Tests, Fifth Edition (2012) 376
TOWRE-2-Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition (2012) 377
WIST (Word Identification and Spelling Test) (2004) 377
DIBELS 378
Bangor Dyslexia Screening Test 378
Dyslexia Screening Test-Junior (DST-J) (2004) 379
Dyslexia Screening Test-Secondary (DST-S) (2004) 379
Dyslexia Screener (2004) 380
Cognitive Profiling System (CoPS) Version 5.1 (2010) 381
Special Needs Assessment Profile 381
WIAT-II UK for Teachers (2006) 382
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II) (UK Norms and III US and Canada Norms Only) 382
Phonological Assessment Battery Revised (PhAB-2) 383
HAST-2 Helen Arkell Spelling Test 383
Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT 4) 384
Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning, Second Edition (WRAML-2) (2003) 384
Test of Auditory Processing Skills-3 (TAPS-3) 384
Appendix 2 Further Contacts 385
International 385
North and South America and Canada 385
Australia and New Zealand 387
Europe 387
Middle East 388
Asia 389
Africa 389
Other Websites 390
Organisations 391
Articles and Reviews About Dyslexia 392
Literacy 393
References 394
Index 437
This chapter will:
As indicated in the last point above, it is important to focus on the positive aspects of dyslexia. One of the earliest pioneers in this area was Tom West, whose landmark book In the Mind's Eye (1997) provided a launch pad for a new wave of research into the positive aspects of dyslexia. Perhaps one of the more refreshing statements regarding the potential attributes of people with dyslexia is made by West himself when he says: 'it is becoming increasingly clear [that much of the success attributed to people with dyslexia1] is because of the dyslexia not in spite of it' (West, 2014, p.78). West goes on to say that for years now we 'have too often focused on fixing the problems-and have totally ignored the development of talents' (p.87).
Dyslexia is often seen as a hidden disability and the estimates from a range of sources suggest that 10-15% of the population have dyslexia and around 4-5% severely.
It is important to be clear when defining dyslexia; and a working definition must take the positive and creative aspects into account. Too often definitions can be general, vague and essentially serve little purpose. They can also be misinterpreted and misused. Definitions need to be contextualised so they are relevant to the teaching and learning context. This chapter will provide clarification on the use of definitions and highlight the need to consider a working definition for dyslexia.
The questions one needs to ask are-do we really need to define dyslexia and can we really encapsulate the features and the feelings that accompany dyslexia in a single statement? These points can be considered when one asks people with dyslexia questions such as 'what is dyslexia?' and 'what does it mean to you?' As part of the research for this book I asked some children and adults those questions! There was a considerable range of responses. Some of the responses are shown below.
'A problem transferring my knowledge into written work.'
'For me it is frustration at not being able to complete tasks on time.'
'Being different from everyone else.'
'Wanting to read books but not getting past the first page.'
'Having a bad memory and being so disorganised.'
'Feeling different from everyone else.'
'Inconsistency in my work-some days I get it right and other days I get the same thing wrong.'
'I find it difficult to listen to the teacher for more than a few minutes.'
The following comment came from a teacher who is dyslexic.
I do not define dyslexia as a bad aspect of my life, I would not be the person I am today if I did not have dyslexia as a part of my genetic and biological makeup. My characteristics of dyslexia have moulded my personality and the experiences and choices I have made in my life, for the good and for the bad. The negative aspects of dyslexia for me is the frustration, confusion and embarrassment I feel when I am involved with tasks which will highlight my difficulties-those which involve memory recall, sequencing, numbers and spelling. I will forget how to do things or misinterpret the instructions, particularly if they were given recently and quickly. The difficulties in being able to remember numbers is real and can cause problems, for example I do not know my parents', partner's or children's telephone numbers. I also find it very difficult to find my way around the alphabet and this affects me on a daily basis. However, it is important to try and keep dyslexia in perspective and see the positive effect it can have on my life. I feel I can empathise with my pupils and their parents/carers. It helps me to keep working to create accessible teaching resources and approaches; perhaps it feeds my creativity and the speed of ideas, planning and focus which I have. These benefits outweigh the negative aspects because they have enabled me to create effective strategies which help me to carry out the vast majority of tasks and responsibilities I have. Despite the embarrassment dyslexia can and does cause me, I function quite well in this society. But I appreciate that I am fortunate and have opportunities and support which others may not.
Reading through these statements one is struck by the emotional feelings attached to them-and that is the problem with a definition of dyslexia: it provides a definitive and descriptive response to what for many can be an area of emotional stress and personal conflict. Yet for education and research purposes a definition is necessary: it is necessary to assist in developing identification and diagnostic criteria and to inform intervention. Definitions can help to provide a label. For many parents a label is necessary as it can help to kickstart the support process. For adults with dyslexia it can help them develop self-knowledge and eventually coping strategies. For teachers it can provide explanations as to why the child may not be responding to the intervention provided. A definition therefore can be an important catalyst in this process. This is why it is important to emphasise the positive aspects of dyslexia. A good source of information is the Dyslexia Advantage website (http://community.dyslexicadvantage.org).
This website highlights why it is important to understand the advantages of dyslexia and helps children and adults gain personal insights into their own learning traits, thereby providing the means for them to become independent, more insightful and more successful learners.
The problem, however, lies in the lack of a universally accepted definition of dyslexia. The recent revision of the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM-5) (American Psychological Association, 2013) is unlikely to help the cause much as 'specific learning disorder' is now the generic term to be used for reading, writing and mathematical difficulties. There are certainly sub-categories, but the authors of the DSM see the generic term as a positive aspect and believe that it is less restrictive and less limiting than previously. DSM-5 indicates that the diagnosis requires persistent difficulties in reading, writing, arithmetic or mathematical reasoning skills during the formal years of schooling. Symptoms may include inaccurate or slow and effortful reading, poor written expression that lacks clarity, difficulties remembering number facts or inaccurate mathematical reasoning.
A very crucial comment is made in the factsheet that accompanies DSM-5 when it indicates that the DSM-5 Neurodevelopmental Work Group concluded that the many definitions of dyslexia and dyscalculia meant those terms would not be useful as disorder names or in the diagnostic criteria.
It is true there are many different definitions of dyslexia, but there are many dimensions to dyslexia-dyslexia is not represented by a single entity (or caused by a single gene). Dyslexia is multifaceted and that can explain why a single, universally accepted definition has not yet been achieved. It can be argued, however, there is some agreement on the constellation of factors that can contribute to dyslexia, but controversy surrounds the respective weighting of these factors. For example, the range of factors that can be associated with dyslexia includes the following:
These points above illustrate the diversity found among the dyslexic population and are some of the factors that can influence our understanding of dyslexia. Each can have an impact on how dyslexia is perceived and how assessment and intervention are portrayed.
Definitions of dyslexia, particularly those used by education authorities, school...
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