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A hands-on approach to understanding the impact of local and global stresses on ecosystems
Ecotoxicology: A Case-based Approach follows a "learning by doing" approach, building a deeper understanding of this multi-faceted discipline through the guided analysis of five carefully selected case studies that between them address both local and global anthropogenic impacts on ecosystem structure and function.
The book is divided into three sections. Section I covers the definition, history and methodology of ecotoxicology. Section II comprises five case studies, each detailing a selected anthropogenic stress, showing how the ecotoxicological approach has been used to explain its environmental impact and by doing so has provided mitigation and restoration strategies. The final section highlights future directions of ecotoxicology. To aid in reader learning, each chapter includes a test bank and reading list for further study.
Written by a highly experienced instructor with more than 30 years of studying and teaching the subject, Ecotoxicology includes case studies on:
Ecotoxicology: A Case-based Approach is an essential guide for upper undergraduate and postgraduate students in ecology and environmental sciences, as well as professionals and policy makers concerned with the conservation and sustainable management of natural resources.
Leah Bendell is a Professor Emerita in the Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science at Simon Fraser University. For over 30 years, she has studied how anthropogenic impacts alter ecosystem structure and function and the consequences of such impacts on ecosystem and human health. Her research has taken her to the Albertan Tar Sands, the mines of Indonesia, the freshwater lakes and wetlands of Ontario and the intertidal regions of coastal British Columbia.
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Section I A Working Framework for the Science of Ecotoxicology 1
1 Ecotoxicology in Context 3
2 Circular Versus Linear 5
3 Life 15
4 Evolution of Ecotoxicology 27
Section II Case Studies 57
5 Acid Deposition within the Framework of Ecotoxicology 59
6 Mercury, Lead, and Cadmium 99
7 Aquaculture 139
8 Big Oil 179
9 The Dark Side of Carbon 223
Section III The Future of Ecotoxicology 257
10 The Future of Ecotoxicology: Where to Now? 259
References and Further Readings 281
Index 299
To detangle the science of ecotoxicology from the applied methods of environmental toxicology, the context for each is required. As defined in Chapter 1, ecotoxicology is the study of anthropogenic impacts on ecosystem structure and function. It is circular and regenerative. It has its genesis in an attempt to deal with the vast human alterations of our planet, from ocean acidification to terrestrial habitat loss within an ecosystem context. Ecotoxicology, through the study of ecosystem structure and function, strives to understand how the ecosystem has responded to anthropogenic activities such as climate change, and by doing so, implement restoration strategies to offset the impact. By contrast, environmental toxicology with the application of LD50s and single-species toxicity tests using death as the most extreme end point to determine contaminant safety guidelines is linear and terminal (Table 2.1, Figure 2.1). Environmental toxicology had its roots in pharmacology, and its approach has not changed in 50?years (Bhattacharya et al. 2011), although there are attempts to move away from animal testing and more humane practices (Burden et al. 2020).
Some would place the beginnings of environmental toxicology with the publication of Silent Spring in 1962 by Rachel Carson (Figure 2.2, timeline of the development initiation of the Society of Environmental Toxicologists and Chemists).
Table 2.1 Commonly used toxicity tests in aquatic toxicology. (For a more comprehensive list, see https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/wildlife-research-landscape-science/biological-test-method-publications.html.)
Widespread use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) had commenced in the early 1940s; six years later, the consequences of the widespread use of DDT were being reported. In 1946, Clarence Cottam and Elmer Higgins of the US Fish and Wildlife Service warned in the Journal of Economic Entomology that the pesticide was a potential menace to mammals, birds, fishes, and other wildlife and that special care should be taken to avoid its application to streams, lakes, and coastal bays because of the sensitivity of fishes and crabs. It was, however, the publication of Silent Spring written by the journalist, Rachel Carson, that brought people's attention to the consequences of the indiscriminate use of pesticides, in this case, DDT. As noted by Woodwell in his seminal paper published in Science in 1967, "That DDT is a serious ecological hazard was recognized from the beginning of its use." Woodwell further comments, "Because of the wide-spread distribution of DDT the effects of the substance on a species of animals can be more damaging than hunting or the elimination of a habitat."
Figure 2.1 A comparison of the approaches taken in ecotoxicology as compared to environmental toxicology. Ecotoxicology is circular and regenerative, and environmental toxicology is linear and terminal.
Source: Bendell, L.I. 2024 ©.
Figure 2.2 Timeline of the development of the Society of Toxicologists and Chemists that was initiated to help direct the development of environmental toxicology and its use for the regulation of toxic chemicals.
Source: Setac/https://www.setac.org/static/e1cd428f-9901-4ec8-afdd95a675048a5f/2019-SETAC-Timeline-Large.png/Last accessed on December 6, 2024.
Figure 2.3 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in linear and as a spatial model. The two benzene rings provide the stability of the compound. DDT is derived from coal tar, which is carbon, the backbone of life. The ability of carbon to create four bonds allows for the synthesis of highly stable compounds as found in nature.
Source: Ben Mills/Public domain/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT#/media/File:DDT-from-xtal-3D-vdW.png/Last accessed on December 6, 2024.
It begins c. 1942, toward the end of the Second World War and the beginning of what has been referred to as the "Anthropocene" or as historically stated our entry into a "brave new world." Perhaps the pesticide DDT, the subject of Carson's book, is the best example to follow through the timeline of a panacea-turned poison (Figure 2.3).
Stapleton (2005) provides an early history of DDT and begins his dialogue of events in late 1943, c. 2?years before the end of the Second World War. Typhus, a disease caused by bacteria carried by lice and spread through contact with body lice, was considered a "threat" to military personnel, and through a secret telegram, then President Eisenhower demanded that a shipment of a "secret new chemical" that controlled louse-borne typhus be given the highest priority (Stapleton, 2005). The DDT became critical to the Allied army and was called a "magic bullet" that, second to the atomic bomb, turned the outcome of the war toward the Allies. DDT prior to this time was a little-known compound with little purpose (Jaram and Ballschmiter, 2012).
DDT arose from coal tar in the late 1800s via the search for dyes and then for a compound that could protect the dyed material from moths. It was rediscovered by Paul Muller, a Swedish chemist, in the 1930s. As noted in Jaram and Ballschmiter (2012), Muller in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech said that the...
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