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Introduction to the Issue: Food Security

Muhammad Khalid Bashir1, Steven G.M. Schilizzi2, and Muhammad Umar Farrukh3

1 Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

2 Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, Australia

3 Department of Economics, Government College Women University, Sialkot, Pakistan

Even though the world is producing enough food, about 10.4% (800 million) of its population is malnourished (FAO 2022). Developing countries are home to about 98% of the world's undernourished people. These poor people are unable to afford adequate diets, which is the biggest hurdle for achieving the goal of "zero hunger." The situation has been worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic. The dynamics of food security are multifaceted and need special attention. Developing countries are similar in general characteristics (low levels of growth in national income, low levels of per capita growth, highly skewed patterns of income distribution, masses suffering from absolute poverty, ill health and malnutrition, low levels of literacy). It is time to understand the dynamics of "food security" in these countries and what is driving them. A simple but meticulous approach will help in this regard, building on the background and deep insights provided in a more general setting by Acemoglu and Robinson's 2012 book, "Why Nations Fail."

Food security became an issue for academic study in the 1970s (Bashir and Schilizzi 2013). Since then, it has attracted the attention of researchers and policymakers. Initially, food security was defined as the ability of nations to consistently meet their aggregate food needs, especially cereals. Then the influential work of Sen (1981) changed the course of food security focus from sufficiency (availability) to access. According to him, individuals' ability to access food depends on their entitlements, i.e. access to resources, markets, technology, and social networks. During the 1980s, the focus further narrowed down to the importance of nutritional security. The focus further shifted to market-oriented research in the 1990s. During the 2010s, the challenges facing agricultural productivity under global climate change and limited farmer resources have again modified the focus by linking it to vulnerability analysis.

Three core areas, food availability, accessibility, and utilization, evolved from the well-known and accepted definition of food security, i.e. food that is always available; that all persons have means of access to it; that it is nutritionally adequate in terms of quantity, quality, and variety; and that it is acceptable within the given culture. Only when all these conditions are in place can a population be considered food secure (FAO 2004). Understanding these core areas in depth will help us understand the phenomenon of food insecurity and better inform the policy process in developing countries. This book is organized into nine chapters, focusing on the following challenges:

• The second chapter focuses on food availability levels and general policy practices to maintain food stocks in developing countries. Food availability depends not only on the general food supply but also on the policy environment enacted by a country and, in particular, on the incentive structures in place. A favorable environment ensures stability and provides agricultural infrastructure for food supply and for maintaining food stocks. Food availability has therefore been measured in terms of sufficiency of supply and ease of access. This chapter starts with a discussion on building the concept of food security and food availability, followed by the status of food availability in terms of the policy environment across the globe. Sufficiency of supply is discussed in reference to food consumption in terms of kilocalories per day per capita. Thereafter, the relationship between food supply and agricultural infrastructure is explored. A comparison of South Asian, Southeast Asian, and global food stocks follows. The food stocks help in the case of food shortages, lean production seasons, and price volatility. These stocks help maintain a steady food supply and stable prices. A detailed discussion on stock maintenance policies and incentives is presented to identify the rationale and derive policy lessons.
• The third chapter examines the status and economic significance of postharvest losses (PHLs) and discusses the case of fruits and vegetables in Pakistan. PHLs refer to the measurable loss in food quantity and quality from harvest to its final consumption. Losses in food quality refer to the reduction in both (objective) nutrient contents and (subjective) acceptability by the consumer. These are more common in developed countries (Kader 2002). Losses in quantity refer to the reduction in the amount of product. These are more common in developing countries due to poor sanitation and handling facilities (Kitinoja and Gorny 1999). Therefore, interventions in reducing PHL are necessary to address the key challenge of food security. Postharvest value addition is also considered as an integral part of all strategies aiming to combat food security for a growing population.
• The fourth chapter links climate change to agricultural productivity. Climate change at the global level can affect agricultural systems at the regional and local levels by impacting ecological dynamics, especially when greater and more frequent flood disasters directly affect agricultural production, with immediate consequences on economic and human well-being.
• The fifth chapter presents a bird's-eye view of agricultural revolutions for ensuring food security and sustaining the livelihood of masses, particularly in developing countries. Several agricultural revolutions have happened in human history, including "the Neolithic Revolution," the West-European Technological Revolution, and the North American Mechanization Revolution. However, the most recent and influential agricultural revolution was the Green Revolution of the 1960s. It featured the advent of science and technology, like plant breeding, genetic engineering, and the use of hybrid varieties of grains, fertilizers, pesticides, machines, and improved irrigation systems. In the post-Green Revolution Era, however, nations improved their R&D priorities by incorporating environmental concerns, poverty reduction, and sustainable resource management into farming systems, which may be considered as "a second agricultural revolution."
• The sixth chapter examines the dynamics of income and income redistribution in developing countries. Rising trends of income inequality in the world are cause for much concern, as they can lead to many other economic and social inequalities, each creating yet more challenges. This income gap has in recent decades grown mostly in developed economies; in developing and emerging economies this trend is mixed. The development of any economy depends not only on the total national income but also on the distribution of income. Indeed, the pattern of income distribution over the years has been a major factor in explaining the level of economic growth and development of any economy. The chapter also describes the subject matter with the help of real-world case studies, taken mostly from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and from Latin American countries.
• The seventh chapter examines the market availability of food. Food security has recently captured the imagination of public policy planners, thinkers, academia, and industry because of the rapid growth in the world population, which is expected to exceed nine billion in 2050. To meet this challenge, adequate availability of markets for producers and consumers is considered important. Markets facilitate the exchange of goods and services essential for ensuring a country's food security. Other main market functions include price determination, resource allocation, policy implementation, value addition, and employment generation. Markets in developing countries involve different stakeholders, such as producers, consumers, traders, trade supporters, and policy planners, who operate to achieve their own goals. Agricultural producers have the option to directly market their produce, usually through farmers' markets. However, most producers in developing countries opt for nondirect marketing options and sell their produce to traders, exporters, processors, or retailers, who then pass on this produce to consumers. Consumers buy their food requirements either from traditional or modern retailers. The performance of markets in developing countries cannot be termed optimal, mainly because of inequitable returns, the predominance of intermediaries, transportation and storage problems, credit constraints, lack of modern marketing and technical knowledge, defective measurement equipment, and lack of organized markets. To overcome the challenges markets face in developing countries, needed policy measures may include promotion of an entrepreneurial mindset, market governance, institutional innovations, diversification, standards, and certification, and greater use of information and communication technology (ICT).
• The eighth chapter covers the developing world's food (in)security challenges using a multifaceted approach. Prices send important signals to...