Chapter 1: Biochemistry Concepts and Themes
1.1 Science and the Scientific Method
- What is Science?
- What is the Scientific Method?
1.2 Organisms, Cells, Chromosomes, and Genes
- Organisms Belong to Three Distinct Domains of Life
- Cells Are the Structural and Functional Units of All Living Organisms
- Viruses Cannot Live Independently of Cells
- Bacterial Cells Feature a Relatively Simple Architecture and Streamlined Lifestyles
- Eukaryotic Cells Have a Variety of Membranous Organelles
- Cells Contain a Wide Range of Supramolecular Structures
- Major Model Organisms and Systems are Useful in Biochemistry
- The Linear Sequence in DNA Encodes Proteins with Three-Dimensional Structures
1.3 The Organic Chemistry of Biochemistry
- Major Organic Species are Found in Cells
- Macromolecules Are the Major Constituents of Cells
- Molecular Weight and Molecular Mass are Expressed by Distinct Conventions
- Nucleophiles and Electrophiles Define How Many Reactions Proceed
- Cofactors Facilitate Particular Classes of Biochemical Reactions
1.4 A Review of Basic Thermodynamics
- Equilibrium Constants and Rate Constants Describe Distinct but Related Thermodynamic Parameters
- Organisms Transform Energy and Matter from Their Surroundings
- Creating and Maintaining Order Requires Work and Energy
1.5 Using Data Banks
Chapter 2: Water: The Chemistry of Life
2.1 Weak Interactions in Aqueous Systems
- Hydrogen Bonds Give Water Its Unusual Properties
- Water Interacts Electrostatically with Charged Solutes
- Nonpolar Gases Are Poorly Soluble in Water
- The Hydrophobic Effect is an Entropy-based Phenomenon
- van der Waals Interactions and Other Weak Interactions Are Key to Macromolecular Structure and Function
2.2 Ionization of Water, Weak Acids, and Weak Bases
- The Ionization of Water Is Expressed by an Equilibrium Constant
- The pH Scale Designates H+ and OH- Concentrations
- Weak Acids and Bases Have Characteristic Acid Dissociation Constants
- Titration Curves Reveal the pKa of Weak Acids
2.3 Buffering against pH Changes in Biological Systems
- A Buffer System Resists Changes in pH in Response to Added Acid or Base.
- The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation Relates pH, pKa, and Buffer Concentration
- Weak Acids or Bases Buffer Cells and Tissues against pH Changes
- Phosphate and Bicarbonate Are Important Biological Buffer Systems Untreated Diabetes Produces Life-Threatening Acidosis
Chapter 3: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins
3.1 Amino Acids
- What is an Amino Acid?
- The Amino Acid Residues in Proteins Are L Stereoisomers
- Amino Acids Can Be Classified by R Group
- Some Amino Acids Absorb Ultraviolet Light
- Uncommon Amino Acids Also Have Important Functions
- Amino Acids Can Act as Acids and Bases
- Amino Acids Differ in Their Acid-Base Properties
3.2 Peptides and Proteins
- Peptides Are Chains of Amino Acids
- Disulfide Bonds Occur in Some Proteins
- Ionization Behavior Can Distinguish Peptides
- Some Proteins Contain Chemical Groups Other Than Amino Acids
3.3 Purifying Proteins
- Proteins Can Be Separated and Purified
- Proteins Are Detected and Quantified Based on Their Functions
- Proteins Can Be Separated and Characterized by Electrophoresis
3.4 The Primary Structure of Proteins and Protein Chemistry
- There are Levels of Complexity to Protein Structure
- The Function of a Protein Depends on Its Amino Acid Sequence
- There are Multiple Ways to Reduce a Polypeptide Chain into Fragments.
- Mass Spectrometry Provides Information on Molecular Mass, Amino Acid Sequence, and Entire Proteomes
- Amino Acid Sequences Provide Important Biochemical and Evolutionary Information
Chapter 4: Protein Structure
4.1 Forces and Interactions that Stabilize Protein Structures
- Protein Structures Are Largely Stabilized by Weak Interactions
- Hydrogen Bonding, Ion Pairs, and van der Waals Interactions Also Contribute to Protein Folding
- The Conformation of the Peptide Bond Constrains Polypeptide Conformation
4.2 Secondary Protein Structure
- The ¿ Helix Maximizes the Use of Polypeptide Hydrogen Bonds
- The ß Strand is a Common Secondary Structure with an Extended Conformation
- Ramachandran Plots Describe the Distribution of Secondary Structure in a Protein
4.3 Tertiary and Quaternary Protein Structure
- Fibrous Proteins Have a Single Type of Secondary Structure
- The Fibrous Protein Collagen is the Most Abundant Protein in Mammals
- Silk is Made from a Fibrous Protein with b-sheet Secondary Structure
- Globular Proteins are Compact and Highly Varied in Three Dimensional Structure
- Protein Tertiary Structures can be Described in Terms of Motifs and Domains.
- Intrinsically Disordered Proteins Lack Stable Tertiary Structures.
- Quaternary Structure Describes the Organization of Multisubunit Proteins.
- Biomolecular Structures Can be Determined Using a Variety of Methods
- The Protein Data Bank is a Repository for Biomolecular Structures
4.4 Protein Denaturation and Folding
- Loss of Protein Structure Results in Loss of Function
- Amino Acid Sequence Determines Tertiary Structure
- Protein Folding Occurs by Defined Pathways and can be Assisted by Chaperones.
- Defects in Protein Folding Cause Human Disease
Chapter 5: Protein Function and Ligand Binding
5.1 Reversible Protein-Ligand Binding
- Ligands Bind to Proteins Reversibly at Binding Sites
- Protein-Ligand Interactions Can Be Described Quantitatively
5.2 Reversible Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding by Myoglobin
- Oxygen Can Bind to a Heme Prosthetic Group
- Globins Are a Family of Oxygen-Binding Proteins
- The Binding of Oxygen to Myoglobin can be Described Quantitatively
- Protein Structure Affects How Ligands Bind
5.3 Reversible and Cooperative Binding of a Protein to a Ligand: Oxygen-Binding by Hemoglobin
- Hemoglobin Subunits Are Structurally Similar to Myoglobin
- Hemoglobin Undergoes a Structural Change on Binding Oxygen
- Hemoglobin Binds Oxygen Cooperatively
- Cooperative Ligand Binding Can Be Described Quantitatively
- Hemoglobin Also Transports H+ and CO2
5.4 Medical Conditions Related to Hemoglobin
- CO Binding to Hemoglobin Poses a Serious Health Risk
- Altered Hemoglobin Subunit Interactions in Sickle Cell Anemia Cause Pain and Suffering
Chapter 6: Protein Function and Enzymes
6.1 What are Enzymes?
- Most Enzymes Are Proteins
- Enzyme-catalyzed Reactions Occur Within Active Sites
- Enzymes Affect Reaction Rates, Not Equilibria
- Reaction Rates and Equilibria are Described by Constants
6.2 How Enzymes Work
- Noncovalent Interactions between Enzyme and Substrate Are Optimized in the Transition State
- Enzymes Use a Variety of Additional Chemical Mechanisms to Facilitate Catalysis
- Coenzymes Facilitate Particular Types of Reactions
6.3 Enzyme Kinetics
- The Steady State of an Enzyme-catalyzed Reaction Reflects the Concentration of ES
- The Relationship Between Substrate Concentration and Reaction Rate can be Described Quantitatively
- Scientists Compare Enzymes Using Vmax and Km.
- Enzymes are Subject to Reversible and Irreversible Inhibition
6.4 Chymotrypsin and Enzymatic Catalysis
- The Chymotrypsin Mechanism Involves Acylation and Deacylation of an Active Site Ser Residue
- An Understanding of Protease Mechanisms Led to Treatments for HIV
- An Understanding of Enzyme Mechanism Leads to Useful Antibiotics
6.5 Regulatory Enzymes
- Some Enzymes are Regulated by Allosteric Conformational Changes in Response to Modulator Binding
- Some Enzymes are Regulated by Reversible Covalent Modification
- Some Enzymes are Regulated by Proteolytic Cleavage of an Enzyme Precursor
Chapter 7: Carbohydrates
7.1 Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
- The Two Families of Monosaccharides Are Aldoses and Ketoses
- The Common Monosaccharides Have Cyclic Structures
- Sugars Containing and Forming Aldehydes are Reducing Sugars
- Disaccharides Consist of Two Monosaccharides Joined by a Glycosidic Bond
7.2 Polysaccharides
- Some Homopolysaccharides Are Storage Forms of Fuel While Others have Structural Roles
- Glycosaminoglycans Are Heteropolysaccharides of the Extracellular Matrix
7.3 Glycoconjugates: Peptidoglycans, Proteoglycans, Glycoproteins, and Glycolipids
- Peptidoglycan Reinforces the Bacterial Cell Wall
- Proteoglycans Are Glycosaminoglycan-Containing Macromolecules of the Cell Surface and Extracellular Matrix
- Glycoproteins Are Proteins with Covalently Attached Oligosaccharides
- Glycolipids and Lipopolysaccharides Are Membrane Components
7.4 Carbohydrates as Signaling Molecules
- Oligosaccharides Have Highly Diverse Structures
- Lectins Are Proteins That Bind Specifically to Complex Oligosaccharides and Mediate Many Biological Processes
Chapter 8: Lipids, Membranes, and Membrane Proteins
8.1 Membrane Lipids
- Fatty Acids are the Hydrocarbon Chain of Membrane Lipids
- Fatty Acid Composition of Lipids Impacts Health
- Structural Elements Determine Membrane Classes
- Membranes Lipids are Amphipathic Molecules that Form Lipid Bilayers
- Membrane Lipid Composition Impacts Membrane Fluidity
8.2 The Architecture of Membrane Proteins
- Membrane Proteins Differ in How They Associate with the Membrane Bilayer
- Integral Membrane Proteins Span Membranes and Can be Transporters
- Peripheral Membrane Proteins Interact with Membranes through Electrostatic Charge
- Lipid-anchored Proteins are Covalently Linked to Hydrophobic Anchors Embedded in the Membrane
8.3 Moving Molecules Through Membranes
- Membrane Transporters are Required to Move Large and Charged Molecules across Membranes
- Transport in and out of Cells May be Passive or Active
- Transporters and Ion Channels Share Structural Properties but Have Different Mechanisms
- The Glucose Transporter of Erythrocytes Mediates Passive Transport
- P-Type ATPases are Active Transporters that Change Conformation with Phosphoryl- Group Transfer from ATP
- Ion Channels Allow Rapid Movement of Ions Across Membranes
Chapter 9: Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids
9.1 Nucleotides
- Nucleotides Have Three Molecular Components
- The Common Nucleotides Have Many Uncommon Variants
- Phosphodiester Bonds Link Successive Nucleotides in Nucleic Acids
- The Properties of Nucleotide Bases Affect the Three-Dimensional Structure of Nucleic Acids
9.2 Nucleic Acid Structures
- DNA Is a Double Helix That Stores Genetic Information
- DNA Can Occur in Different Three-Dimensional Forms
- Certain DNA and RNA Sequences Adopt Unusual Structures
- Messenger RNAs Code for Polypeptide Chains
- Many RNAs Have More Complex Three-Dimensional Structures
9.3 Nucleic Acid Chemistry
- Double-Helical DNA and RNA Can Be Denatured
- Base Stacking Affects the UV Absorption Properties of DNA and RNA
- Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids Undergo Nonenzymatic Transformations
9.4 Nucleotide Roles in Cell Energetics and Signaling
- Nucleotides Carry Chemical Energy in Cells
- Some Nucleotides Are Regulatory Molecules or Signals
- Adenine Nucleotides Serve as Constituents of Many Enzymatic Cofactors; a Clue to the Origin of Life?
Chapter 10: Biological Information Part 1: DNA and RNA Metabolism
10.1 DNA Replication
- DNA Replication Follows a Set of Rules
- DNA Polymerases Synthesizes DNA
- DNA Replication Requires Many Enzymes and Protein Factors
- DNA Replication Occurs in Stages
10.2 DNA Repair and Organization
- All Cells Have Multiple DNA Repair Systems
- DNA Repair Can Also Occur in the Absence of Replication
- DNA Is Organized into Chromatin
10.3 Transcription and RNA Processing
- RNA Polymerases Synthesizes RNA
- RNA Replication Requires Many Enzymes and Protein Factors
- RNA Syntheses Occurs in Stages
- Medicines can Target or Be Made by RNA Polymerases
- Nearly All Eukaryotic RNAs Must Be Processed
- Reverse Transcriptases Produce DNA From RNA
10.4 Regulation of Transcription
- Transcription of Specific Genes Requires Regulatory Proteins in Addition to RNA Polymerase
- Regulation of Gene Expression in Bacteria
- Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
Chapter 11: Biological Information Part 2: Protein Metabolism
11.1 The Genetic Code
- The Genetic Code Describes How Sets of Nucleic Acids Correspond to Particular Amino Acids
- tRNA Anticodons Base Pair with Codons
- tRNAs are Charged with Amino Acids for Protein Synthesis
- tRNA Charging Requires ATP Hydrolysis
11.2 Structure and Function of Ribosomes
- Ribosomes Catalyze Protein Synthesis
- Protein Synthesis Occurs in Stages
- Translation Factors Interact with the Ribosome During Elongation and Termination
- Protein Synthesis by the Ribosomes is Energetically Expensive
11.3 Protein Folding, Modification, and Degradation
- Chaperones Help Proteins Fold into Their Native Conformation
- Posttranslational Modifications are Critical for the Function of Many Proteins
- Protein Degradation is Highly Regulated in Eukaryotes by the Ubiquitin/Proteosome Pathway
11.4 Translational Control
- Riboswitches, Small RNAs, and Attenuation Can Control Gene Expression in Bacteria
- Eukaryotes Use mRNA Binding Proteins, RNAi, and MicroRNAs to Regulate Protein Production
Chapter 12: Nucleic Acid Technologies
12.1 Defining Genomic Information
- The Genome is All of the Nucleic Acid Needed to Support the Life of an Organism
- The Polymerase Chain Reaction Provides Targeted Amplification of Genomic Information
- DNA Can Be Sequenced
- Sanger Sequencing has been Automated
- Next-Generation DNA Sequencing Produces Complete Genome Sequences
- RNA Can be Sequenced by First Copying the RNA to DNA with Reverse Transcriptase
12.2 Altering Genomic Information
- Joining DNA Segments from Different Sources Yields Recombinant DNA Segments Can be Joined Without Using Restriction Enzymes
- Cloned DNA Can be Altered to Study Genes and Proteins
- CRISPR/Cas Systems Allows Targeted Cleavage or Modification of Genomic Information
12.3 Using Genomic Information
- An Altered Genome can Lead to an Altered Transcriptome and Proteome
- Genomic Information Can be Used to Identify the Source of Genetic Diseases
- Genomic Information Can be Used to Investigate Crimes
Chapter 13: Introduction to Intermediary Metabolism
13.1 What is Metabolism?
- Molecules are Metabolized by Anabolic and Catabolic Pathways
- Metabolic Pathways can be Converging, Diverging, or Cyclic
13.2 Common Enzyme Reactions in Metabolism
- Carbonyls are Important for Making and Breaking Carbon-Carbon Bonds
- Rearrangement and Isomerization Reactions Reposition Reactive Groups
- Elimination Reactions Release Good Leaving Groups
- Free-Radical Reactions Involve Complex Rearrangements
- Group Transfer Reactions Add or Subtract Functional Groups to Metabolites
- Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Involve Electron Transfer to or from Biomolecules
13.3 ATP and Phosphoryl Group Transfers
- ATP Contains High Energy Phosphodiester Bonds
- ATP Hydrolysis is Thermodynamically Very Favorable
- Many Other Metabolites and Enzyme Reaction Intermediates Also Have Large, Negative Free Energies of Hydrolysis
- ATP Donates Phosphoryl, Pyrophosphoryl, and Adenyl Groups
- ATP can Provide Energy by Group Transfers, Not Just by Hydrolysis
13.4 Biological Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
- Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Can Be Described as Half-Reactions
- Biological Oxidations Often Involve Dehydrogenation
- A Few Types of Coenzymes and Proteins Serve as Universal Electron Carriers
13.5 Regulation of Metabolic Pathways
- Cells and Organisms Maintain a Dynamic Steady State
- Both the Amount and the Catalytic Activity of an Enzyme Can Be Regulated
Chapter 14: Carbohydrate Metabolism Part 1: Glycolysis and Glycogen Synthesis
14.1 An Overview of Glycolysis
- Glycolysis Has Two Phases: The Preparatory and Payoff Phases
- In Glycolysis the Potential Energy of Glucose is Partially Converted to ATP and NADH
- Phosphorylated Intermediates are Important in Glycolysis
14.2 The Preparatory and Payoff Phases of Glycolysis
- The Preparatory Phase of Glycolysis Converts Glucose to a 3-carbon Metabolite and Consumes ATP
- The Payoff Phase of Glycolysis Yields ATP, NADH, and Pyruvate
- The Glycolytic Pathway Conserves Part of the Energy Released as ATP and NADH:
- Feeder Pathways Provide Additional Fuel for Glycolysis
14.3 Anaerobic Fermentation of Pyruvate
- There Are Two Anaerobic Fermentation Pathways
- The Warburg Effect Describes How Cancer Cells Rely Almost Entirely on Glycolysis for Energy
14.4 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
- The Pentose Phosphate Pathway Generates NADPH and Essential Pentose Phosphates
- The Oxidative Phase Produces NADPH and Pentose Phosphates
- The Nonoxidative Phase Recycles Pentose Phosphates to Glucose 6-Phosphate, Fructose 6-Phosphate, and Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate
- NADPH Produced by the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Defends Cells from Reactive Oxygen Species
- Deficiencies in the Oxidative Phase of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Have Serious Health Consequences
14.5 Glycogen Synthesis
- Glycogen Provides a Specialized Molecular Structure for Glucose Storage
- The Sugar Nucleotide UDP-Glucose Donates Glucose for Glycogen Synthesis
- Defects in Glycogen Synthesis have Important Medical Consequences
Chapter 15: Carbohydrate Metabolism Part 2: Gluconeogenesis and Glycogen Degradation
15.1 Gluconeogenesis
- Gluconeogenesis and Glycolysis Share Many But Not All Steps and Enzymes
- Glycolysis Enzymes are Bypassed at Three Steps in Gluconeogenesis
- Gluconeogenesis is Energetically Expensive and Essential
15.2 Coordinated Regulation of Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis
- Hexokinase Isozymes Are Affected Differently by Their Product, Glucose 6-Phosphate
- Phosphofructokinase-1 and Fructose 1,6-Bisphosphatase Are Reciprocally Regulated
- Fructose 2,6-Bisphosphate Is a Potent Allosteric Regulator of PFK-1 and FBPase-1
15.3 Breakdown of Glycogen and Its Regulation
- Glycogen Breakdown Is Catalyzed by Glycogen Phosphorylase
- Glycogen Phosphorylase Is Regulated by Hormone-Stimulated Phosphorylation and by Allosteric Effectors
- Allosteric and Hormonal Signals Coordinate Carbohydrate Metabolism Throughout the Body
Chapter 16: Pyruvate Oxidation and the Citric Acid Cycle
16.1 Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA
- The Citric Acid Cycle Occurs in Mitochondria
- Pyruvate Is Oxidized by Pyruvate Dehydrogenase to Generate Acetyl-CoA, NADH, and CO2
- The Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex Promotes a Multi-stage Reaction Sequence
- Pyruvate Dehydrogenase is Subject to Regulation
16.2 The Citric Acid Cycle
- Citrate, the First Tricarboxylic Acid, Forms in Step 1
- A Citrate Hydroxyl Group Moves in Step 2
- Following the Formation of Isocitrate, Two Oxidative Decarboxylations that Form CO2 Occur with Different Mechanisms
- Succinyl-CoA Synthetase Promotes the Formation of Succinate and GTP in Step 5
- The Final Three Steps Convert Succinate to Oxaloacetate Via a Common Oxidative Path
- The Energy of Oxidation is Conserved in the Citric Acid Cycle
- The Concentration of Key Metabolites Regulates Flux Through the Citric Acid Cycle
16.3 The Citric Acid Cycle as a Metabolic Hub
- The Citric Acid Cycle Plays a Central Role in Catabolism and Anabolism
- A Variety of Reactions Replenish Citric Acid Cycle Intermediates or Supplement Cycle Products
16.4 The Citric Acid Cycle Affects Cell State and Disease State
- Changes in Cell State Can be Accompanied by Flux Through a Non-canonical Citric Acid Cycle
- Vitamin Deficiencies Result in Disease
- Amino Acid Substitutions in Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Facilitate Tumor Growth
Chapter 17: Lipid Catabolism and Anabolism
17.1 The Fed State: Digestion, Synthesis, and Storage of Fats
- Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids Requires Two Enzyme Complexes
- Fatty Acid Synthesis Is Tightly Regulated
- Free Fatty Acids Are Incorporated Into Glycerolipids
- Triacylglycerol Biosynthesis Is Regulated by Hormones
17.2 Synthesis and Transport of Cholesterol
- Cholesterol Is Made from Acetyl-CoA in Four Stages
- Cholesterol Has Several Fates
- Cholesterol and Other Lipids Are Carried as Lipoprotein Particles
- HDL and LDL Cholesterol Enter Cells through Receptor-Mediated Interactions
- Dysregulation of Cholesterol Can Lead to Cardiovascular Disease
17.3 The Fasted State: Fatty Acid Oxidation and Production of Ketone Bodies
- Lipid Catabolism Occurs In Fasted States
- Fatty Acid Oxidation Occurs In The Mitochondria
- Regulation of Fatty Acid Oxidation By Compartmentalization
- Ketone Body are Formed in the Liver and Exported to Other Tissues
- Ketone Bodies Are Overproduced in Diabetes and Starvation
Chapter 18: Amino Acid Catabolism and Anabolism
18.1 The Worldwide Nitrogen Web and its Many Interfaces With Living Systems
- The Global Nitrogen Web Makes Atmospheric Nitrogen Available to Cells
- Nitrogen is Converted to Ammonia by Enzymes of the Nitrogenase Complex
- Ammonia Is Incorporated into Biomolecules through Glutamate and Glutamine
- Amino Groups are Distributed Primarily via Transamination Facilitated by Pyridoxal Phosphate
- Ammonia Generated by Some Cellular Processes is Toxic to Animals
- A Few Amino Acids Play Special Roles in Nitrogen Metabolism
18.2 Disposal of Amino Groups via the Urea Cycle
- In Extrahepatic Tissues, Amino Groups are Incorporated into Glutamine for Transport to the Liver
- The Urea Cycle Disposes of Excess Amino Groups
- Connections Among Metabolic Pathways Reduce the Energetic Cost of Urea Synthesis
18.3 Amino Acid Catabolism and Anabolism
- Amino Acid Catabolism Produces Pyruvate, Acetyl-CoA, and Citric Acid Cycle intermediates
- Several Enzyme Cofactors Play Important Roles in Amino Acid Catabolism
- Some Genetic Deficiency Diseases are Linked to Amino Acid Catabolism
- Amino Acid Anabolism is often Not the Reverse of Amino Acid Catabolism
- Organisms Vary Greatly in Their Ability to Synthesize the 20 Common Amino Acids
- Ketoglutarate Gives Rise to Glutamate, Glutamine, Proline, and Arginine
18.4 Molecules Derived from Amino Acids
- Heme is Derived from Glycine and Succinyl-CoA
- Biological Amines Are Products of Amino Acid Decarboxylation
- Glutathione is Synthesized from Glutamate, Cysteine, and Glycine
18.5 Nucleotide Biosynthesis
- The Ribose in Nucleotides is Derived from Phosphoribosyl Pyrophosphate
- Pyrimidine Nucleotides Are Made from Aspartate, PRPP, and Carbamoyl Phosphate
- De Novo Purine Nucleotide Synthesis Begins with PRPP
- Ribonucleotides Are the Precursors of Deoxyribonucleotides
- Thymidylate Is Derived from dCDP and dUMP
Chapter 19: Electron Transfer and Oxidative Phosphorylation
19.1 The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain
- Chemiosmotic Theory Describes How Electron Flow Couples to ATP Synthesis in Mitochondria
- Mitochondrial Architecture Facilitates Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis
- Dehydrogenases Funnel Electrons to Universal Electron Acceptors
- Electrons Pass through a Series of Membrane-Bound Carriers
- Electron Carriers Function in Multienzyme Complexes
- The Energy of Electron Transfer is Conserved in a Proton Gradient
- Reactive Oxygen Species are Generated during Oxidative Phosphorylation
19.2 ATP Synthesis
- In the Chemiosmotic Model, Oxidation and Phosphorylation Are Obligately Coupled
- ATP Synthase Has Two Functional Domains
- Chemiosmotic Coupling Allows Nonintegral Stoichiometries of Consumption and ATP Synthesis
- Shuttle Systems Indirectly Convey Cytosolic NADH into Mitochondria for Oxidation
- Uncoupling the Proton Gradient from ATP Synthesis Produces Heat
19.3 Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation and Mitochondrial Disease
- An Inhibitory Protein Prevents ATP Hydrolysis during Hypoxia
- Hypoxia Leads to ROS Production and Several Adaptive Responses
- ATP Producing Pathways Are Regulated
- Mitochondrial Enzyme Defects Cause Disease
Chapter 20: Metabolism and Biosignaling
20.1 Hormone Structure and Action
- Hormones Act Through Specific High-Affinity Cellular Receptors
- Hormones are Chemically Diverse
- Hormones Regulate Glucose Levels
- Diabetes Mellitus Arises from Defects in Insulin Production or Action
20.2 Tissue Specific Metabolism
- The Liver Processes and Distributes Nutrients in Feeding
- The Liver Produces Ketone Bodies to Fuel Perip
