Culture, Sport and Physical Activity

INTRODUCTION

CULTURE, SPORT, AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activities, fitness, and sports can be considered cultural practices reflecting multiple meanings. The Sport, Culture, and Society series deals with issues intersecting sport, physical activity, and cultural concerns. The focus of the book series is interdisciplinary and multi-cultural, drawing from various disciplines and theoretical approaches, such as sociology, psychology, cultural anthropology, history, philosophy, feminist/gender studies, political science, - all of which are applied to this text Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity. Thus, the perspectives represented in this book reflect a variety of research concerns from a multi-disciplinary perspective as well as discussions of current topics in sport and physical activity and their relationship to culture. Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity is the culmination of research and teachings undertaken during the tenure of my academic life, including various faculty members and graduate students from institutions I have worked at in the United States and Germany, thus, reflecting various cultural understandings/interpretations of sport and physical activity. It is my hope that volume 5, Culture, Sport, and Physical Activity, will aid in improving the understanding between different cultures, various theoretical backgrounds, and the plentiful interpretations of the field of Kinesiology, encompassing ALL forms of physical activity undertaken by human beings.

This book starts out with laying the theoretical foundations for the sociology and psychology of physical activity and sport (Chapters 1 and 2) and culture and values in the 21st century (Chapter 3). Then the health aspects (Chapter 4) and youth involvement in sport and physical activity (Chapter 5) are discussed. Major concerns of interpretations of race/ethnicity, gender, and body image issues as applied to human movement are analyzed in Chapters 6, 7, and 8. Lastly, the influences of politics on sport and vice versa as well as the relationship between sport and religion conclude this text (Chapter 9).

In order to better facilitate discussions on culture, sport, and physical activity it is necessary to first lay out the definitions and key concepts used throughout this book. While Chapter 3 focuses on culture and values and their effects on human movement, this introduction will establish working definitions for sport, health and fitness, - as they will be used throughout this text.

Definition of Terms

Fitness and Health. The scientific literature in kinesiology (performance and human movement related sciences) distinguishes between two forms of physical fitness, one related to health, including rehabilitation, and the other related to performance. Fitness is often described as an integral part of health and self-realization:

Physical fitness is considered a multifaceted continuum which measures the quality of health ranging from death and disease that severely limit activity to the optimal functional abilities of various physical aspects of life. (AAHPER Research Council, 1996)

The concept of fitness not only refers to exercise and its effects, but also to the general state of a person's psycho-physical well-being (Glassner, 1990, 216). Although some fitness enthusiasts distinguish between fitness and health, in everyday usage the two words have become generally synonymous. Both terms incorporate exercise, diet, life-style, and more.

The International Consensus Conference on Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and Health (Bouchard et al, 1990) defined health as a 'human condition with physical, social, and psychological dimensions, each characterized on a continuum with positive and negative poles. Positive health is associated with a capacity to enjoy life and withstand challenges; it is not merely the absence of disease. Negative health is associated with morbidity and, in the extreme, with premature mortality.' (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996).

Fitness and health also reflect the underlying concept that both are essential to the development of individuals, for the body as well as the mind. "Mens sana in corpore sano" - a sound mind in a sound body. Fitness is "stabilized health" achieved through training. Indeed, both are associated with the quality of life, with life satisfaction and fulfillment, as well as the ecological and social parameters of each individual. That is, fitness and health are major determinants of how well people master their lives and adapt to new situations and requirements.

A number of researchers have evaluated the benefits associated with regular participation in fitness activities. Uhlenbruck (1992, 1996), for example, in his immunological research on cancer and sport found that the effects of a well balanced engagement in movement, sport, or fitness activities have led to a sense of subjective psychological well-being. He also found an increase in cognitive ability and creativity. Other researchers have noted that as a consequence of greater physical endurance people are more able to master the daily routines of the job and the home. When engagement in sporting and fitness activities results in enjoyment, the subjective quality of life is also positively influenced (see Chapter 4 in this text).

Cultural Variations of the Term Sport. The word "sport" is derived from the Latin deportare , which means to divert. In most European languages, the term "sport" has an all-inclusive meaning, incorporating a variety of human movements, including sport, recreation and leisure activities, as well as exercise and physical fitness. The German language, for example, distinguishes between different forms of sporting engagement depending on the major focus of the activity; for example, a physical activity with the orientation towards fitness is called Fitness-Sport, an orientation towards health is called Gesundheits-Sport (health sport); an orientation towards achievement and competition is called Leistungs-Sport (athletics or top-level sport); an orientation towards rehabilitation is called Reha-Sport, and so on (Volkwein, 1999). Recently, terms such as Geronto-Fitness (fitness activities for older adults) and Prestige-Sport (e.g., golf and yachting) have been added to the sporting vocabulary, - which is expanding as the diversity of sporting activities increases. Hence, the term sport is used in the broadest sense of human movement and exercise.

Modern sport has been defined by the Council of Europe as a free, spontaneous physical activity, which is conducted as leisure pursuit for enjoyment, recreation, and relaxation. Proper sport is executed with physical effort and encompasses several categories, which include competitive games and athletics, outdoor pursuits, aesthetic movement (e.g., dance) and conditioning activity.

In North America, on the other hand, the term sport is generally used in reference to competitive sporting endeavors. Other forms of physical activity have their specific terminology depending on the focus of the activity, - much like the German differentiation. However, these other forms of human movement are labeled as fitness or health exercise, leisure and recreational activities, dance, play, games, and more. The term sport is not attached here, as it is in the German language; thus, the concept of sport in the North American context is essentially much more narrow and only used when the main objective is competition.

Although definitions of sports vary, those who offer definitions tend to emphasize that sports are institutionalized competitive activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by participants motivated by internal and external rewards. (Coakley, 2004, 21)

Readers of this book should be aware of the cultural differences in the usage of the word sport, nationally and internationally. The international understanding captures all aspects of human movement and physical activity, and it embraces the health aspect of regular engagement in exercise as well; hence, this interpretation of sport is more suitable for the issues discussed in this text.

Conclusion

Social and cultural changes as well as the effects of the globalization process impact on curricular development of sport and physical education programs, health and wellness education, as well as our body culture in general. Thus, it is important to understand the impact of these changes on peoples' lives and their needs, especially in regard to physical activity. The "old" rather traditional 'sport for all' concept with its focus on competition and achievement may not satisfy these changed needs of individuals in modern societies any longer. Rather, the "new" fitness and exercise development with its emphasis on health, relaxation, and general life fulfillment may be more appropriate to the contribution of the overall psycho-physical well-being of modern individuals. And, as the process of globalization continues, it is likely that this understanding of fitness and exercise will spread to non-western cultures as well. Eventually, it might become the global 'sport for all' concept in the future.

References

AAHPER Research Council (1996). Health Related Physical Fitness Test Manual.

Coakley, J. (2004). Sport in Society. 8th Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Glassner, B. (1990). Fit for Postmodern...