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Preface xvii
A SCIENTIFIC FRAMEWORK FOR AEROSOL SAMPLING 1
1 Introduction 3
1.1 Aerosols 3
1.2 Particle size 4
1.3 Elementary particle size statistics 5
1.4 Aerosol measurement 8
1.5 Sampler performance characteristics 9
References 12
2 Fluid and aerosol mechanical background 13
2.1 Fluid mechanical background 13
2.2 Aerosol mechanics 22
References 33
3 Experimental methods in aerosol sampler studies 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Methodology for assessing sampler performance 35
3.3 Scaling relationships for aerosol samplers 38
3.4 Test facilities 39
3.5 Test aerosol generation 50
3.6 Reference methods 60
3.7 Assessment of collected aerosol 60
3.8 Aerosol sampler test protocols and procedures 61
References 68
4 The nature of air flow near aerosol samplers 71
4.1 Introduction 71
4.2 Line and point sink samplers 71
4.3 Thin-walled slot and tube entries 73
4.4 Thick-walled tubes 75
4.5 Simple blunt samplers facing the wind 76
4.6 Blunt samplers with orientations other than facing the wind 82
4.7 More complex sampling systems 89
4.8 Effects of freestream turbulence 90
References 90
5 Aerosol aspiration in moving air 93
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Thin-walled tube samplers 94
5.3 Blunt samplers 116
References 127
6 Aspiration in calm and slowly moving air 131
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Sampling in perfectly calm air 131
6.3 Slowly moving air 149
References 155
7 Interferences to aerosol sampling 157
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Interferences during aspiration 157
7.3 Interferences after aspiration 173
References 188
8 Options for aerosol particle size selection after aspiration 193
8.1 Introduction 193
8.2 Elutriation 194
8.3 Filtration by porous foam media 197
8.4 Centrifugation 201
8.5 Impaction 205
8.6 Diffusion 211
8.7 Other particle size-selective mechanisms 213
References 215
B STANDARDS FOR AEROSOLS 219
9 Framework for aerosol sampling in working, living and ambient environments 221
9.1 Introduction 221
9.2 Exposure to aerosols 222
9.3 Framework for health-related aerosol sampling 227
9.4 Non-health-related aerosol standards 233
References 235
10 Particle size-selective criteria for coarse aerosol fractions 237
10.1 Introduction 237
10.2 Experimental studies of inhalability 237
10.3 Particle size-selective criteria for the inhalable fraction 247
10.4 Overview 252
References 253
11 Particle size-selective criteria for fine aerosol fractions 255
11.1 Introduction 255
11.2 Studies of regional deposition of inhaled aerosols 255
11.3 Criteria for fine aerosol fractions 268
11.4 Overview 282
References 285
12 Health effects and Limit values 289
12.1 Introduction 289
12.2 Aerosol-related health effects 289
12.3 The processes of standards setting 292
12.4 Occupational exposure limits (OELs) 292
12.5 Ambient atmospheric aerosol limits 297
12.6 Special cases 301
References 305
C AEROSOL SAMPLING INSTRUMENTATION 309
13 Historical milestones in practical aerosol sampling 311
13.1 Introduction 311
13.2 Occupational aerosol sampling 312
13.3 Ambient atmospheric aerosol sampling 319
References 323
14 Sampling for coarse aerosols in workplaces 327
14.1 Introduction 327
14.2 Static (or area) samplers for coarse aerosol fractions 327
14.3 Personal samplers for coarse aerosol fractions 333
14.4 Analysis of performance data for inhalable aerosol samplers 352
14.5 Passive aerosol samplers 354
References 356
15 Sampling for fine aerosol fractions in workplaces 359
15.1 Introduction 359
15.2 Samplers for the respirable fraction 359
15.3 Samplers for the thoracic fraction 385
15.4 Samplers for PM2.5 391
15.5 Thoracic particle size selection for fibrous aerosols 393
15.6 Sampling for very fine aerosols 394
15.7 Simultaneous sampling for more than one aerosol fraction 395
References 398
16 Sampling in stacks and ducts 403
16.1 Introduction 403
16.2 Basic considerations 403
16.3 Stack sampling methods 404
16.4 Sampling probes for stack sampling 410
16.5 Sampling for determining particle size distribution in stacks 414
16.6 Direct-reading stack-monitoring instruments 415
References 415
17 Sampling for aerosols in the ambient atmosphere 417
17.1 Introduction 417
17.2 Sampling for coarse 'nuisance' aerosols 417
17.3 Sampling for 'black smoke' 423
17.4 Sampling for total suspended particulate in the ambient atmosphere 425
17.5 Sampling for fine aerosol fractions in the ambient atmosphere 432
17.6 Meteorological sampling 440
References 442
18 Sampling for the determination of particle size distribution 447
18.1 Introduction 447
18.2 Rationale 447
18.3 Aerosol spectrometers 448
18.4 Cascade impactors 452
18.5 Other spectrometers 465
18.6 Particle size distribution analysis by microscopy 469
References 470
19 Sampling for bioaerosols 473
19.1 Introduction 473
19.2 Standards for bioaerosols 474
19.3 Technical issues for bioaerosol sampling 474
19.4 Early bioaerosol sampling 476
19.5 Criteria for bioaerosol sampling 477
19.6 Inertial samplers 477
19.7 Centrifugal samplers 485
19.8 'Total' and inhalable bioaerosol 486
19.9 Other samplers 486
References 486
20 Direct-reading aerosol sampling instruments 489
20.1 Introduction 489
20.2 Optical aerosol-measuring instruments 490
20.3 Electrical particle measurement 503
20.4 Condensation nuclei/particle counters 504
20.5 Mechanical aerosol mass measurement 505
20.6 Nuclear mass detectors 509
20.7 Surface area monitoring 510
20.8 Analytical chemical methods 511
20.9 Bioaerosol monitoring 511
References 513
D AEROSOL SAMPLE APPLICATIONS AND FIELD STUDIES 517
21 Pumps and paraphernalia 519
21.1 Introduction 519
21.2 Air moving systems 519
21.3 Flow rate 524
21.4 Collection media 526
21.5 Analysis of collected samples 533
References 535
22 Field experience with aerosol samplers in workplaces 537
22.1 Introduction 537
22.2 Personal and static (or area) sampling 538
22.3 Relationship between 'total' and inhalable aerosol 539
22.4 Converting particle counts to particle mass 549
22.5 Field experience with samplers for respirable aerosol 558
22.6 Classification of workplace aerosols 562
22.7 Diesel particulate matter 568
22.8 The future of workplace aerosol measurement 569
References 570
23 Field experience with aerosol samplers in the ambient atmosphere 575
23.1 Introduction 575
23.2 'Nuisance' dust 576
23.3 Total suspended particulate and black smoke 577
23.4 Black smoke and particle size fractions (PM10 and PM2.5) 580
23.5 Transition to particle size-selective sampling 582
23.6 PM10 585
23.7 PM2.5 589
23.8 Personal exposures to PM10 and PM2.5 589
23.9 Classification of ambient atmospheric aerosols 593
References 596
Index 599
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