Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Volume 7, Nanocomposites

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright Page [Seite 6]
4 - Dedication [Seite 7]
5 - Contents [Seite 9]
6 - Preface [Seite 23]
7 - 1 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Nanomaterials (Cellulose, Lignin, and Silica) from Renewable (Lignocellulosic) Resources [Seite 25]
7.1 - 1.1 Introduction [Seite 26]
7.1.1 - 1.1.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose [Seite 27]
7.1.1.1 - 1.1.1.1 Types of Nanocellulose [Seite 29]
7.1.2 - 1.1.2 Lignin and Nanolignin [Seite 31]
7.1.3 - 1.1.3 Silica and Nanosilica [Seite 31]
7.2 - 1.2 Preparation of Nanomaterials [Seite 34]
7.2.1 - 1.2.1 Nanocellulose from Lignocellulosic Materials [Seite 34]
7.2.1.1 - 1.2.1.1 Mechanical Shearing and Grinding [Seite 35]
7.2.1.2 - 1.2.1.2 Steam Explosion/High-Pressure Homogenization [Seite 36]
7.2.1.3 - 1.2.1.3 Chemical Methods (Acid Hydrolysis, Alkaline Treatment and Bleaching) [Seite 40]
7.2.1.4 - 1.2.1.4 Ultrasonication [Seite 41]
7.2.1.5 - 1.2.1.5 Other Methods [Seite 42]
7.2.1.6 - 1.2.1.6 Functionalized Nanocellulose from Fibers [Seite 44]
7.2.2 - 1.2.2 Nanolignin [Seite 45]
7.2.2.1 - 1.2.2.1 Precipitation Method [Seite 46]
7.2.2.2 - 1.2.2.2 Chemical Modification [Seite 46]
7.2.2.3 - 1.2.2.3 Electro Spinning Followed by Surface Modification [Seite 46]
7.2.2.4 - 1.2.2.4 Freeze Drying Followed by Thermal Stabilization and Carbonization [Seite 46]
7.2.2.5 - 1.2.2.5 Supercritical Antisolvent Technology [Seite 47]
7.2.2.6 - 1.2.2.6 Chemomechanical Methods [Seite 47]
7.2.2.7 - 1.2.2.7 Nanolignin by Self-Assembly [Seite 47]
7.2.2.8 - 1.2.2.8 Lignin Nanocontainers by Miniemulsion Method [Seite 47]
7.2.2.9 - 1.2.2.9 Template-Mediated Synthesis [Seite 48]
7.2.3 - 1.2.3 Nanosilica [Seite 49]
7.2.3.1 - 1.2.3.1 Nanosilica Obtained from Plants [Seite 49]
7.2.3.2 - 1.2.3.2 Enzymatic Crystallization of Amorphous Nanosilica [Seite 51]
7.3 - 1.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials [Seite 51]
7.3.1 - 1.3.1 Characterization of Nanocellulose [Seite 53]
7.3.1.1 - 1.3.1.1 Structure and Morphology of NC [Seite 53]
7.3.1.2 - 1.3.1.2 Physical Properties (Dimensions, Density, Electrical, Crystallinity, and Any Other) [Seite 57]
7.3.1.3 - 1.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties [Seite 60]
7.3.2 - 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignin Nanoparticles [Seite 61]
7.3.2.1 - 1.3.2.1 Morphology of Lignin Nanoparticles [Seite 62]
7.3.2.2 - 1.3.2.2 Thermal Analysis [Seite 63]
7.3.3 - 1.3.3 Other Methods [Seite 63]
7.3.4 - 1.3.4 Characterization of Nanosilica [Seite 63]
7.4 - 1.4 Applications and Market Aspects [Seite 69]
7.4.1 - 1.4.1 Nanocellulose [Seite 69]
7.4.1.1 - 1.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications [Seite 70]
7.4.1.2 - 1.4.1.2 Dielectric Materials [Seite 70]
7.4.1.3 - 1.4.1.3 In Composite Manufacturing for Various Applications [Seite 70]
7.4.1.4 - 1.4.1.4 Advanced Functional Materials [Seite 71]
7.4.2 - 1.4.2 Nanolignin [Seite 73]
7.4.3 - 1.4.3 Nanosilica [Seite 75]
7.4.3.1 - 1.4.3.1 In Composites [Seite 75]
7.4.4 - 1.4.3.2 Nanosilica in Nacre Composite [Seite 76]
7.4.5 - 1.4.3.3 Encapsulation of Living Cells by Nanosilica [Seite 76]
7.5 - 1.5 Concluding Remarks and Challenges Ahead [Seite 78]
7.6 - Acknowledgments [Seite 79]
7.7 - References [Seite 79]
8 - 2 Hydrogels and its Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources: Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications [Seite 91]
8.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 91]
8.2 - 2.2 Hydrogels from Renewable Resources [Seite 95]
8.3 - 2.3 Hydrogel Technical Features [Seite 96]
8.4 - 2.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 96]
8.4.1 - 2.4.1 Polymer-Clay-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 99]
8.4.2 - 2.4.2 Poly(ethylene Oxide)-Silicate Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 100]
8.4.3 - 2.4.3 Poly(acryl Amide) and Poly(vinyl Alcohol)-Silicate-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 101]
8.5 - 2.5 Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Natural Polymers [Seite 103]
8.6 - 2.6 Classifications of Hydrogels [Seite 104]
8.7 - 2.7 Applications of Hydrogels as Biomaterials [Seite 106]
8.7.1 - 2.7.1 Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications [Seite 106]
8.7.2 - 2.7.2 Hydrogels for Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds [Seite 108]
8.7.3 - 2.7.3 Hydrogels for Contact Lens [Seite 109]
8.7.4 - 2.7.4 Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation [Seite 109]
8.7.5 - 2.7.5 Artificial Muscles and Nerve Regeneration [Seite 110]
8.8 - 2.8 Conclusions [Seite 111]
8.9 - Acknowledgment [Seite 112]
8.10 - References [Seite 112]
9 - 3 Preparation of Chitin-Based Nanocomposite Materials Through Gelation with Ionic Liquid [Seite 121]
9.1 - 3.1 Introduction [Seite 122]
9.2 - 3.2 Dissolution and Gelation of Chitin with Ionic Liquid [Seite 124]
9.3 - 3.3 Fabrication of Self-Assembled Chitin Nanofibers by Regeneration from the Chitin Ion Gels [Seite 127]
9.4 - 3.4 Preparation of Nanocomposite Materials from Chitin Nanofibers [Seite 128]
9.5 - 3.5 Conclusion [Seite 138]
9.6 - References [Seite 139]
10 - 4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites [Seite 145]
10.1 - 4.1 Introduction [Seite 145]
10.2 - 4.2 Nanocomposites [Seite 146]
10.3 - 4.3 Starch Structural Features [Seite 147]
10.4 - 4.4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites [Seite 148]
10.4.1 - 4.4.1 Starch Silicate Nanocomposites [Seite 149]
10.4.2 - 4.4.2 Starch/Chitosan Composites [Seite 150]
10.4.3 - 4.4.3 Starch Cellulose Nanocomposites [Seite 152]
10.4.4 - 4.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites with Other Nanofillers [Seite 153]
10.5 - 4.5 Starch Nanocrystal, Nanoparticle, and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods [Seite 155]
10.5.1 - 4.5.1 Starch Nanocrystals Preparation by Acid Hydrolysis Method [Seite 155]
10.5.2 - 4.5.2 Starch Nanocrystal Modification Methods [Seite 157]
10.5.2.1 - 4.5.2.1 Starch Nanocrystals Chemical Modification by Molecules with Low Molecular Weight [Seite 157]
10.5.2.2 - 4.5.2.2 Modification of Starch Nanocrystals via Surface Grafting of Polymers [Seite 157]
10.5.3 - 4.5.3 Starch Nanoparticle and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods [Seite 159]
10.6 - 4.6 Nano Starch as Fillers in Other Nanocomposites [Seite 164]
10.7 - 4.7 Biomedical Application [Seite 167]
10.8 - 4.8 Conclusion [Seite 168]
10.9 - References [Seite 169]
11 - 5 Biorenewable Nanofiber and Nanocrystal: Renewable Nanomaterials for Constructing Novel Nanocomposites [Seite 179]
11.1 - 5.1 Nanocellulose-Based and Nanocellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 180]
11.1.1 - 5.1.1 Gelling Performances of Nanocelluloses [Seite 181]
11.1.2 - 5.1.2 Nanocelluloses-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels [Seite 183]
11.2 - 5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels [Seite 190]
11.2.1 - 5.2.1 Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Aerogels [Seite 190]
11.2.2 - 5.2.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Composite Aerogels [Seite 195]
11.2.3 - 5.2.3 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Nanocomposite Aerogels [Seite 200]
11.2.4 - 5.2.4 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Hybrid Aerogels [Seite 203]
11.3 - 5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Biomimetic and Conductive Nanocomposite Films [Seite 207]
11.3.1 - 5.3.1 Nanocellulose-Polymer Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films [Seite 207]
11.3.2 - 5.3.2 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films [Seite 211]
11.3.3 - 5.3.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Conductive Nanocomposite Films [Seite 214]
11.4 - 5.4 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal and its Nanocomposites with Unique Optical Properties [Seite 220]
11.4.1 - 5.4.1 CNC Chiral Nematic Performances [Seite 220]
11.4.2 - 5.4.2 CNC-Polymer Photonic Nanocomposites [Seite 223]
11.4.3 - 5.4.3 CNC-Inorganic Photonic Nanocomposites [Seite 226]
11.4.4 - 5.4.4 CNC-Templated Chiral Nematic Nanomaterials [Seite 228]
11.5 - 5.5 Spun Fibers from Nanocelluloses [Seite 231]
11.5.1 - 5.5.1 Spinning Performances of Nanocelluloses and Properties [Seite 231]
11.5.2 - 5.5.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers [Seite 234]
11.5.3 - 5.5.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbons Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers [Seite 236]
11.6 - 5.6 Summary and Outlook [Seite 237]
11.7 - References [Seite 239]
12 - 6 Investigation of Wear Characteristics of Dental Composite Reinforced with Rice Husk-Derived Nanosilica Filler Particles [Seite 251]
12.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 251]
12.2 - 6.2 Materials and Method [Seite 253]
12.2.1 - 6.2.1 Synthesis of Nanosilica Powder [Seite 253]
12.2.2 - 6.2.2 Materials and Fabrication Details [Seite 254]
12.2.3 - 6.2.3 Determination of Hardness [Seite 254]
12.2.4 - 6.2.4 Determination of Flexural Strength [Seite 255]
12.2.5 - 6.2.5 Determination of Wear [Seite 255]
12.2.6 - 6.2.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope [Seite 256]
12.3 - 6.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 256]
12.3.1 - 6.3.1 Effect of Vickers Hardness on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica [Seite 256]
12.3.2 - 6.3.2 Effect of Flexural Strength on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica [Seite 257]
12.3.3 - 6.3.3 Steady-State Condition for Wear Characterization in Food Slurry and Acidic Medium [Seite 257]
12.3.3.1 - 6.3.3.1 Effect of Chewing Load on Volumetric Wear Rate on Dental Composite [Seite 257]
12.3.3.2 - 6.3.3.2 Effect of Profile Speed on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite [Seite 259]
12.3.3.3 - 6.3.3.3 Effect of Chamber Temperature on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite [Seite 260]
12.3.4 - 6.3.4 Wear Analysis of Experimental Results by Taguchi Method and ANOVA Analysis [Seite 261]
12.3.4.1 - 6.3.4.1 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Food Slurry Using Taguchi and ANOVA [Seite 261]
12.3.4.2 - 6.3.4.2 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Citric Acid Using Taguchi and ANOVA [Seite 264]
12.3.5 - 6.3.5 Surface Morphology of Worn Surfaces Under Food Slurry and Citric Acid Condition [Seite 265]
12.3.6 - 6.3.6 Confirmation Experiment of Proposed Composites [Seite 267]
12.4 - 6.4 Conclusions [Seite 268]
12.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 269]
12.6 - Nomenclature [Seite 269]
12.7 - References [Seite 269]
13 - 7 Performance of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites Fabricated via Ionic Liquid Based on Halloysites and Vermiculite [Seite 273]
13.1 - 7.1 Introduction [Seite 274]
13.1.1 - 7.1.1 Overview [Seite 274]
13.1.2 - 7.1.2 Cellulose Structure and Properties [Seite 274]
13.1.3 - 7.1.3 Regenerated Cellulose [Seite 275]
13.1.4 - 7.1.4 Conventional Solvent for Cellulose [Seite 275]
13.1.5 - 7.1.5 Dissolution of Cellulose in NMMO [Seite 276]
13.1.6 - 7.1.6 Cellulose Dissolution in Ionic Liquid [Seite 277]
13.1.7 - 7.1.7 Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites [Seite 279]
13.1.8 - 7.1.8 Halloysites [Seite 279]
13.1.9 - 7.1.9 Vermiculite [Seite 279]
13.2 - 7.2 Experimental [Seite 280]
13.2.1 - 7.2.1 Materials [Seite 280]
13.2.2 - 7.2.2 Sample Preparation [Seite 281]
13.2.2.1 - 7.2.2.1 The Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose via Ionic Liquid [Seite 281]
13.2.2.2 - 7.2.2.2 Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites via Ionic Liquids [Seite 281]
13.2.3 - 7.2.3 Characterization of the Nanocomposites Films [Seite 281]
13.3 - 7.3 Results and Discussions [Seite 282]
13.3.1 - 7.3.1 XRD Patterns of RC Nanocomposites [Seite 282]
13.3.2 - 7.3.2 FTIR Spectra of RC Nanocomposites [Seite 283]
13.3.3 - 7.3.3 Mechanical Properties of RC Nanocomposites [Seite 285]
13.3.4 - 7.3.4 Morphology Analysis of the RC Nanocomposites [Seite 287]
13.3.4.1 - 7.3.4.1 Transmission Electron Micrographs Images Analysis [Seite 287]
13.3.4.2 - 7.3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy Images Analysis [Seite 288]
13.3.5 - 7.3.5 Thermal Stability Analysis of RC Nanocomposites [Seite 289]
13.3.6 - 7.3.6 Water Absorption of RC Nanocomposites [Seite 291]
13.4 - 7.4 Conclusion [Seite 292]
13.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 293]
13.6 - References [Seite 293]
14 - 8 Preparation, Structure, Properties, and Interactions of the PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 299]
14.1 - 8.1 PVA and Cellulose [Seite 299]
14.1.1 - 8.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol [Seite 299]
14.1.1.1 - 8.1.1.1 Molecular Weight and the Degree of Alcoholysis [Seite 299]
14.1.1.2 - 8.1.1.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of PVA [Seite 300]
14.1.2 - 8.1.2 Cellulose [Seite 301]
14.1.2.1 - 8.1.2.1 Structure and Chemistry of Cellulose [Seite 301]
14.1.2.2 - 8.1.2.2 Source of Cellulose [Seite 302]
14.1.2.3 - 8.1.2.3 The Particle Types of Cellulose [Seite 302]
14.1.2.4 - 8.1.2.4 Properties of Cellulose [Seite 303]
14.1.2.5 - 8.1.2.5 Application of Cellulose [Seite 304]
14.1.3 - 8.1.3 PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 304]
14.1.3.1 - 8.1.3.1 The Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 304]
14.1.3.2 - 8.1.3.2 Application of PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 305]
14.2 - 8.2 The Bulk and Surface Modification of Cellulose Particles [Seite 305]
14.2.1 - 8.2.1 The Bulk Modification of Cellulose Particles [Seite 305]
14.2.1.1 - 8.2.1.1 Complex Modification [Seite 305]
14.2.1.2 - 8.2.1.2 Graft Polymerization [Seite 306]
14.2.2 - 8.2.2 The Surface Modification of Cellulose [Seite 307]
14.2.2.1 - 8.2.2.1 Chemical Surface Modification [Seite 307]
14.2.2.2 - 8.2.2.2 Physical Surface Modification [Seite 308]
14.3 - 8.3 The Methods and Technology of Preparation of the PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 308]
14.3.1 - 8.3.1 Solvent Casting [Seite 308]
14.3.2 - 8.3.2 Melt Processing [Seite 309]
14.3.3 - 8.3.3 Electrospun Fiber [Seite 309]
14.3.4 - 8.3.4 In Situ Production [Seite 310]
14.4 - 8.4 The Relationship between Structure and Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 310]
14.4.1 - 8.4.1 Interpenetrating Polymer Network [Seite 310]
14.4.2 - 8.4.2 Hydrogen-Bonding or Bond Network [Seite 311]
14.4.3 - 8.4.3 Chemical Cross-Linked Network [Seite 311]
14.5 - 8.5 The Effect of the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose on Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites [Seite 312]
14.5.1 - 8.5.1 Characterization Methods for the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose [Seite 312]
14.5.1.1 - 8.5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy [Seite 312]
14.5.1.2 - 8.5.1.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry [Seite 312]
14.5.1.3 - 8.5.1.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction [Seite 313]
14.5.1.4 - 8.5.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared [Seite 313]
14.5.2 - 8.5.2 Interaction between PVA and Cellulose [Seite 314]
14.5.2.1 - 8.5.2.1 Molecular Interactions [Seite 314]
14.5.2.2 - 8.5.2.2 Covalent Interactions [Seite 314]
14.5.2.3 - 8.5.2.3 Nucleation of Cellulose [Seite 314]
14.6 - 8.6 Conclusions and Outlook [Seite 315]
14.7 - References [Seite 315]
15 - 9 Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements [Seite 323]
15.1 - 9.1 Introduction [Seite 323]
15.2 - 9.2 A Short Overview on Nanosized Cellulose [Seite 324]
15.3 - 9.3 General Aspects on Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements [Seite 328]
15.4 - 9.4 Green Composites from Biopolyamides and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements [Seite 329]
15.5 - 9.5 Green Composites from Polylactide and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements [Seite 333]
15.5.1 - 9.5.1 General Aspects [Seite 333]
15.5.2 - 9.5.2 Processing Methods [Seite 334]
15.5.2.1 - 9.5.2.1 Solution Casting [Seite 334]
15.5.2.2 - 9.5.2.2 Melt Processing [Seite 335]
15.5.2.3 - 9.5.2.3 Other Processing Techniques [Seite 338]
15.5.3 - 9.5.3 Mechanical, Thermal, and Morphological Properties [Seite 338]
15.5.4 - 9.5.4 Applications [Seite 342]
15.6 - 9.6 Microbial Polyesters Nanocellulose Composites [Seite 343]
15.6.1 - 9.6.1 PHAs Biosynthesis [Seite 343]
15.6.2 - 9.6.2 General Overview on PHAs-Nanocellulose Composites [Seite 345]
15.6.3 - 9.6.3 Processing Strategies for the Preparation of PHAs-Cellulose Nanocomposites [Seite 345]
15.6.4 - 9.6.4 Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical Characteristics of PHAs/Nanocellulose [Seite 347]
15.6.5 - 9.6.5 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility [Seite 351]
15.6.6 - 9.6.6 Applications [Seite 352]
15.7 - 9.7 Conclusions [Seite 352]
15.8 - Acknowledgment [Seite 353]
15.9 - References [Seite 353]
16 - 10 Biomass Composites from Bamboo-Based Micro/Nanofibers [Seite 363]
16.1 - 10.1 Introduction [Seite 363]
16.2 - 10.2 Bamboo Microfiber and Microcomposites [Seite 364]
16.2.1 - 10.2.1 Bamboo Fibrovascular Bundle Structure [Seite 364]
16.2.2 - 10.2.2 Preparation Methods of Short Bamboo Microfiber [Seite 365]
16.2.3 - 10.2.3 Preparation of sBµF with Super-Heated Steam [Seite 366]
16.2.3.1 - 10.2.3.1 SHS Treatment [Seite 366]
16.2.3.2 - 10.2.3.2 Characterization Methods of sBµF [Seite 366]
16.2.3.3 - 10.2.3.3 Changes in Surface Morphology of SHS-Treated Bamboo [Seite 368]
16.2.3.4 - 10.2.3.4 Changes in Chemical and Physical Properties of SHS-Treated Bamboo [Seite 369]
16.2.3.5 - 10.2.3.5 Classification of sBµF [Seite 372]
16.2.4 - 10.2.4 Preparation of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites [Seite 373]
16.2.4.1 - 10.2.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites [Seite 373]
16.2.4.2 - 10.2.4.2 Melt Processability of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites [Seite 374]
16.2.4.3 - 10.2.4.3 Electrical Properties of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites [Seite 374]
16.3 - 10.3 Bamboo Lignocellulosic Nanofiber and Nanocomposite [Seite 376]
16.3.1 - 10.3.1 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Cellulose [Seite 376]
16.3.2 - 10.3.2 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Lignocellulose [Seite 376]
16.3.3 - 10.3.3 Reactive Processing for Nanofibrillation [Seite 377]
16.3.4 - 10.3.4 Changes in Cellulose Crystalline Structure after Nanofibrillation [Seite 378]
16.3.5 - 10.3.5 Preparation of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites [Seite 379]
16.3.6 - 10.3.6 Properties of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites [Seite 380]
16.4 - 10.4 Conclusions [Seite 381]
16.5 - References [Seite 382]
17 - 11 Synthesis and Medicinal Properties of Polycarbonates and Resins from Renewable Sources [Seite 387]
17.1 - 11.1 Introduction [Seite 387]
17.2 - 11.2 Synthesis [Seite 389]
17.2.1 - 11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Polycarbonates [Seite 389]
17.2.2 - 11.2.2 Synthesis of Polycarbonate from Eugenol [Seite 389]
17.2.3 - 11.2.3 Synthesis of Renewable Bisphenols from 2,3-Pentanedione [Seite 390]
17.2.4 - 11.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoporous PC-SiO2 [Seite 391]
17.2.5 - 11.2.5 Synthesis of Fluorinated Epoxy-Terminated Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (FBPA-PC EP) [Seite 391]
17.2.6 - 11.2.6 Synthesis of Eugenol-Based Epoxy Resin (DEU-EP) [Seite 392]
17.3 - 11.3 Polycarbonates from Renewable Resources [Seite 392]
17.3.1 - 11.3.1 Ethylene from Biomass [Seite 392]
17.3.2 - 11.3.2 Synthesis of Dianols via Microwave Degradation [Seite 393]
17.3.3 - 11.3.3 Glycerol Carbonates from Recyclable Catalyst [Seite 393]
17.3.4 - 11.3.4 Alternative to Phosgene for Aromatic Polycarbonate and Isocyanate Syntheses [Seite 394]
17.3.5 - 11.3.5 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Polycarbonate [Seite 395]
17.4 - 11.4 Medicinal Properties [Seite 396]
17.4.1 - 11.4.1 Polycarbonates in Drug Delivery [Seite 396]
17.4.2 - 11.4.2 Polycarbonates in Gene Transformation [Seite 396]
17.4.3 - 11.4.3 Cytotoxicity Test of Polycarbonates [Seite 397]
17.4.4 - 11.4.4 Polycarbonates in Autoimmunity [Seite 398]
17.4.5 - 11.4.5 Activation of Hyperprolactinemia and Immunostimulatory Response by Polycarbonates [Seite 399]
17.5 - 11.5 Conclusion [Seite 400]
17.6 - References [Seite 400]
18 - 12 Nanostructured Polymer Composites with Modified Carbon Nanotubes [Seite 405]
18.1 - 12.1 Introduction [Seite 406]
18.1.1 - 12.1.1 Polymer Materials and Their Application [Seite 406]
18.1.2 - 12.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Application and Their Main Properties [Seite 411]
18.2 - 12.2 Experimental Methods [Seite 414]
18.2.1 - 12.2.1 Investigation of the CNTs Synthesis [Seite 414]
18.2.2 - 12.2.2 CNTs Treatment [Seite 419]
18.2.3 - 12.2.3 Composites Fabrication [Seite 419]
18.2.4 - 12.2.4 Testing Procedures [Seite 419]
18.3 - 12.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 420]
18.3.1 - 12.3.1 FTIR Spectroscopy [Seite 420]
18.3.2 - 12.3.2 Influence of Fluorination on the CNTs Specific Surface [Seite 420]
18.3.3 - 12.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study [Seite 420]
18.3.4 - 12.3.4 TGA of Virgin and Fluorinated CNTs [Seite 421]
18.3.5 - 12.3.5 SEM Data of Composites Fracture [Seite 421]
18.3.6 - 12.3.6 TGA and DSC of Composites [Seite 425]
18.3.7 - 12.3.7 Mechanical Properties of Composites [Seite 426]
18.3.7.1 - 12.3.7.1 Tensile Strength [Seite 426]
18.3.7.2 - 12.3.7.2 Flexural Strength [Seite 427]
18.4 - 12.4 Conclusion [Seite 427]
18.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 428]
18.6 - References [Seite 428]
19 - 13 Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites Derived from Polysaccharides: Challenges and Opportunities [Seite 433]
19.1 - 13.1 Introduction [Seite 433]
19.2 - 13.2 Constituents [Seite 436]
19.2.1 - 13.2.1 Polysaccharides [Seite 436]
19.2.2 - 13.2.2 Inorganic Nanofillers [Seite 437]
19.3 - 13.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Derived Nanocomposites [Seite 438]
19.3.1 - 13.3.1 Surface Modification [Seite 438]
19.3.2 - 13.3.2 Addition of Components [Seite 440]
19.3.3 - 13.3.3 In Situ Preparation of Nanoparticles via Precursors [Seite 443]
19.4 - 13.4 Processing [Seite 445]
19.4.1 - 13.4.1 Plasticizers [Seite 446]
19.4.2 - 13.4.2 Conventional Processing Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites [Seite 446]
19.4.3 - 13.4.3 Emerging Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites [Seite 448]
19.5 - 13.5 Trends and Perspectives [Seite 450]
19.6 - Acknowledgments [Seite 450]
19.7 - References [Seite 451]
20 - 14 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposites: A Greener Approach for the Future [Seite 457]
20.1 - 14.1 Introduction [Seite 457]
20.2 - 14.2 Wood Polymer Nanocomposite [Seite 459]
20.3 - 14.3 Basic Components of Wood Polymer Nanocomposite [Seite 460]
20.4 - 14.4 Natural Polymer/Raw Material Used in Preparation of WPNC [Seite 460]
20.4.1 - 14.4.1 Starch [Seite 460]
20.4.2 - 14.4.2 Gluten [Seite 461]
20.4.3 - 14.4.3 Chitosan [Seite 462]
20.4.4 - 14.4.4 Vegetable Oil [Seite 463]
20.4.4.1 - 14.4.4.1 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oil [Seite 464]
20.5 - 14.5 Wood [Seite 466]
20.6 - 14.6 Cross-Linker [Seite 467]
20.7 - 14.7 Modification of Natural Polymers [Seite 467]
20.7.1 - 14.7.1 Grafting of Starch [Seite 467]
20.7.2 - 14.7.2 Modification of Starch by Other Methods [Seite 468]
20.7.3 - 14.7.3 Plasticizer [Seite 469]
20.7.4 - 14.7.4 Nano-Reinforcing Agents [Seite 470]
20.7.4.1 - 14.7.4.1 Montmorillonite [Seite 470]
20.7.4.2 - 14.7.4.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles [Seite 471]
20.7.4.3 - 14.7.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes [Seite 472]
20.7.4.4 - 14.7.4.4 Nanocellulose [Seite 472]
20.8 - 14.8 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Composites [Seite 473]
20.8.1 - 14.8.1 Mechanical Properties [Seite 473]
20.8.2 - 14.8.2 Thermal Properties [Seite 474]
20.8.3 - 14.8.3 Water Uptake and Dimensional Stability [Seite 474]
20.9 - 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects [Seite 475]
20.10 - References [Seite 476]
21 - 15 Cellulose Whisker-Based Green Polymer Composites [Seite 485]
21.1 - 15.1 Cellulose: Discovery, Sources, and Microstructure [Seite 486]
21.1.1 - 15.1.1 Sources of Cellulose [Seite 486]
21.1.2 - 15.1.2 Microstructure of Cellulose [Seite 487]
21.2 - 15.2 Nanocellulose [Seite 490]
21.2.1 - 15.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis [Seite 491]
21.2.2 - 15.2.2 Mechanical Processes [Seite 494]
21.2.3 - 15.2.3 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation [Seite 495]
21.2.4 - 15.2.4 Steam Explosion Method [Seite 496]
21.2.5 - 15.2.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis [Seite 497]
21.2.6 - 15.2.6 Hydrolysis with Gaseous Acid [Seite 498]
21.2.7 - 15.2.7 Treatment with Ionic Liquid [Seite 498]
21.3 - 15.3 Polymer Composites [Seite 499]
21.3.1 - 15.3.1 Polymer Composite Fabrication Techniques [Seite 500]
21.3.1.1 - 15.3.1.1 Casting Evaporation Technique [Seite 500]
21.3.1.2 - 15.3.1.2 Extrusion [Seite 500]
21.3.1.3 - 15.3.1.3 Compression Molding [Seite 501]
21.3.1.4 - 15.3.1.4 Injection Molding [Seite 502]
21.3.2 - 15.3.2 Cellulose Whisker Composites: Literature-Based Discussion [Seite 502]
21.3.2.1 - 15.3.2.1 Latex-Based Composites [Seite 502]
21.3.2.2 - 15.3.2.2 Polar Polymer-Based Composites [Seite 503]
21.3.2.3 - 15.3.2.3 Nonpolar Polymer-Based Composites [Seite 503]
21.4 - 15.4 Applications of Cellulose Whisker Composites [Seite 507]
21.4.1 - 15.4.1 Packaging [Seite 508]
21.4.2 - 15.4.2 Automotive and Toys [Seite 508]
21.4.3 - 15.4.3 Electronics [Seite 508]
21.4.4 - 15.4.4 Biomedical Applications [Seite 509]
21.5 - References [Seite 510]
22 - 16 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites Reinforced with Different Additives [Seite 519]
22.1 - 16.1 Introduction [Seite 519]
22.2 - 16.2 Biopolymers [Seite 521]
22.2.1 - 16.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers [Seite 521]
22.3 - 16.3 PLA Nanocomposites [Seite 526]
22.3.1 - 16.3.1 PLA-Clay Nanocomposites [Seite 526]
22.3.2 - 16.3.2 PLA-Carbonaceous Nanocomposites [Seite 531]
22.3.3 - 16.3.3 PLA-Bio Filler Composites [Seite 534]
22.3.4 - 16.3.4 PLA-Silica Nanocomposites [Seite 540]
22.4 - 16.4 Summary [Seite 540]
22.5 - References [Seite 540]
23 - 17 Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Green, Multifunctional and Sustainable Nanomaterials [Seite 547]
23.1 - 17.1 Introduction: Natural Based Products [Seite 547]
23.2 - 17.2 Nanocellulose [Seite 548]
23.2.1 - 17.2.1 Nanocellulose: Properties [Seite 548]
23.2.1.1 - 17.2.1.1 Nanocellulose: Mechanical Properties [Seite 550]
23.2.1.2 - 17.2.1.2 Nanocellulose: Physical Properties [Seite 550]
23.2.1.3 - 17.2.1.3 Nanocellulose: Surface Chemistry Properties [Seite 553]
23.2.2 - 17.2.2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis Process [Seite 553]
23.2.2.1 - 17.2.2.1 Conventional Acid Hydrolysis Process [Seite 553]
23.2.3 - 17.2.3 Nanocellulose: Limitations [Seite 554]
23.2.3.1 - 17.2.3.1 Single Particles Dispersion [Seite 554]
23.2.3.2 - 17.2.3.2 Barrier Properties [Seite 554]
23.2.3.3 - 17.2.3.3 Permeability Properties [Seite 555]
23.3 - 17.3 Nanocellulose: Chemical Functionalization [Seite 555]
23.3.1 - 17.3.1 Organic Compounds Functionalization [Seite 556]
23.3.1.1 - 17.3.1.1 Molecular Functionalization [Seite 556]
23.3.1.2 - 17.3.1.2 Macromolecular Functionalization [Seite 560]
23.3.2 - 17.3.2 Nanocellulose: Inorganic Compounds Functionalization [Seite 563]
23.3.2.1 - 17.3.2.1 Nanocellulose-Titanium Oxide Functionalization [Seite 563]
23.3.2.2 - 17.3.2.2 Nanocellulose-Fluorine Functionalization [Seite 563]
23.3.2.3 - 17.3.2.3 Nanocellulose-Gold Functionalization [Seite 564]
23.3.2.4 - 17.3.2.4 Nanocellulose-Silver Functionalization [Seite 564]
23.3.2.5 - 17.3.2.5 Nanocellulose-Pd Functionalization [Seite 564]
23.3.2.6 - 17.3.2.6 Nanocellulose-CdS Functionalization [Seite 565]
23.4 - 17.4 Applications of Functionalized Nanocellulose [Seite 565]
23.4.1 - 17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment [Seite 565]
23.4.2 - 17.4.2 Biomedical Applications [Seite 566]
23.4.3 - 17.4.3 Biosensor and Bioimaging [Seite 566]
23.4.4 - 17.4.4 Catalysis [Seite 567]
23.5 - 17.5 Conclusion [Seite 567]
23.6 - Acknowledgment [Seite 568]
23.7 - References [Seite 568]
24 - 18 Halloysite-Based Bionanocomposites [Seite 581]
24.1 - 18.1 Introduction [Seite 581]
24.2 - 18.2 Biodegradable Polymers [Seite 583]
24.2.1 - 18.2.1 Cellulose [Seite 583]
24.2.2 - 18.2.2 Chitosan [Seite 584]
24.2.3 - 18.2.3 Starch [Seite 585]
24.2.4 - 18.2.4 Alginate [Seite 586]
24.2.5 - 18.2.5 Pectin [Seite 586]
24.3 - 18.3 Natural Inorganic Filler: Halloysite Nanotubes [Seite 587]
24.3.1 - 18.3.1 Functionalization of HNTs [Seite 589]
24.3.1.1 - 18.3.1.1 Functionalization of External Surface [Seite 589]
24.3.1.2 - 18.3.1.2 Functionalization of the Lumen [Seite 591]
24.3.2 - 18.3.2 Composites Structured with Halloysite [Seite 592]
24.4 - 18.4 Bionanocomposites [Seite 593]
24.4.1 - 18.4.1 HNT-Biopolymer Nanocomposite Formation [Seite 593]
24.4.2 - 18.4.2 Properties of HNTs-Biopolymer Nanocomposites [Seite 594]
24.4.2.1 - 18.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Surface Morphology [Seite 595]
24.4.2.2 - 18.4.2.2 Bionanocomposites Mechanical and Thermal Response [Seite 597]
24.5 - 18.5 Applications of HNT/Polysaccharide Nanocomposites [Seite 600]
24.6 - 18.6 Conclusions [Seite 602]
24.7 - References [Seite 603]
25 - 19 Nanostructurated Composites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Silver Nanoparticles [Seite 609]
25.1 - 19.1 Introduction [Seite 609]
25.2 - 19.2 Silver Nanoparticles [Seite 610]
25.3 - 19.3 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles [Seite 612]
25.4 - 19.4 Silver Nanoparticle Composites [Seite 618]
25.4.1 - 19.4.1 In situ and ex situ Strategies for AgNPs-Based Composites with Polymer Matrix [Seite 618]
25.4.2 - 19.4.2 Other AgNPs Composites [Seite 623]
25.5 - 19.5 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles Composites [Seite 624]
25.5.1 - 19.5.1 Active Substance Delivery Composites [Seite 624]
25.5.2 - 19.5.2 Antimicrobial Composites [Seite 627]
25.6 - 19.6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives [Seite 631]
25.7 - Acknowledgments [Seite 632]
25.8 - References [Seite 632]
26 - 20 Starch-Based Biomaterials and Nanocomposites [Seite 647]
26.1 - 20.1 Introduction [Seite 647]
26.2 - 20.2 Starch: Structure and Characteristics [Seite 649]
26.3 - 20.3 Applicability of Starch in Food Industry [Seite 651]
26.3.1 - 20.3.1 Starch Biomaterials: Films, Coatings, and Blends [Seite 653]
26.3.2 - 20.3.2 Reinforced Materials [Seite 655]
26.3.3 - 20.3.3 Starch Nanoparticles [Seite 656]
26.4 - 20.4 Conclusion [Seite 656]
26.5 - References [Seite 657]
27 - 21 Green Nanocomposites-Based on PLA and Natural Organic Fillers [Seite 661]
27.1 - 21.1 Introduction [Seite 661]
27.2 - 21.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [Seite 662]
27.3 - 21.3 Natural Organic Nanofillers [Seite 664]
27.3.1 - 21.3.1 Cellulose [Seite 665]
27.3.1.1 - 21.3.1.1 Main Derivatization Methods Used to Increase Cellulose Affinity to PLA [Seite 667]
27.3.2 - 21.3.2 Chitin [Seite 669]
27.3.3 - 21.3.3 Starch [Seite 670]
27.4 - 21.4 Bionanocomposites Based on PLA [Seite 672]
27.4.1 - 21.4.1 PLA/cellulose Nanocomposites [Seite 672]
27.4.1.1 - 21.4.1.1 Preparation [Seite 672]
27.4.1.2 - 21.4.1.2 Properties [Seite 675]
27.4.1.3 - 21.4.1.3 Degradation [Seite 677]
27.4.2 - 21.4.2 PLA/chitin Nanocomposites [Seite 678]
27.4.2.1 - 21.4.2.1 Preparation [Seite 678]
27.4.2.2 - 21.4.2.2 Properties [Seite 679]
27.4.3 - 21.4.3 PLA/starch Nanocomposites [Seite 680]
27.4.3.1 - 21.4.3.1 Preparation [Seite 680]
27.4.3.2 - 21.4.3.2 Properties [Seite 681]
27.5 - 21.5 Conclusions [Seite 683]
27.6 - References [Seite 683]
28 - 22 Chitin and Chitosan-Based (NANO) Composites [Seite 695]
28.1 - 22.1 Introduction [Seite 696]
28.1.1 - 22.1.1 Chitin [Seite 696]
28.1.2 - 22.1.2 Chitosan [Seite 697]
28.2 - 22.2 Chitin and Chitosan Properties and Processing [Seite 698]
28.3 - 22.3 Preparation and Characterization of Ct and Cs Composites: An Overview [Seite 699]
28.4 - 22.4 Ct- and Cs-Metal Composites [Seite 703]
28.5 - 22.5 Ct and Cs-Inorganic Composites [Seite 709]
28.5.1 - 22.5.1 Food Packaging [Seite 709]
28.5.2 - 22.5.2 Membranes [Seite 709]
28.5.3 - 22.5.3 Biomedical Uses [Seite 709]
28.5.4 - 22.5.4 Environmental Remediation [Seite 710]
28.6 - 22.6 Composites Based on Ct and Cs Whiskers [Seite 711]
28.7 - 22.7 Overview, Perspectives, and Conclusion [Seite 714]
28.8 - References [Seite 715]
29 - Index [Seite 725]
30 - EULA [Seite 737]