Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Volume 4, Functionalization

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright Page [Seite 6]
4 - Dedication [Seite 7]
5 - Contents [Seite 9]
6 - Preface [Seite 21]
7 - 1 Chitosan-Based Biosorbents: Modifications and Application for Sequestration of PPCPs and Metals for Water Remediation [Seite 23]
7.1 - 1.1 Introduction [Seite 23]
7.2 - 1.2 Modification of Chitosan [Seite 27]
7.2.1 - 1.2.1 Physical Modification [Seite 27]
7.2.2 - 1.2.2 Chemical Modification [Seite 28]
7.2.2.1 - 1.2.2.1 Cross-Linking [Seite 29]
7.2.2.2 - 1.2.2.2 Grafting [Seite 31]
7.2.3 - 1.2.3 Molecular Imprinting Technique [Seite 34]
7.3 - 1.3 Interactions of Chitosan-Based MIP Sorbents with Pollutants (Organic & Inorganic) [Seite 37]
7.3.1 - 1.3.1 Organic Molecule [Seite 37]
7.3.1.1 - 1.3.1.1 Covalent [Seite 37]
7.3.1.2 - 1.3.1.2 Noncovalent [Seite 38]
7.3.1.3 - 1.3.1.3 Semicovalent Interaction [Seite 38]
7.3.2 - 1.3.2 Inorganic Molecule (Metal Ions) [Seite 38]
7.3.2.1 - 1.3.2.1 Chelation (Coordinate Covalent Bond) [Seite 38]
7.3.2.2 - 1.3.2.2 Ion Exchange/Electrostatic Attraction [Seite 38]
7.4 - 1.4 Applications of Chitosan [Seite 39]
7.4.1 - 1.4.1 Applications of Metal-Loaded Chitosan [Seite 39]
7.4.1.1 - 1.4.1.1 Sorption of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants [Seite 39]
7.4.1.2 - 1.4.1.2 Catalytic Applications [Seite 40]
7.4.2 - 1.4.2 Other Applications of Chitosan [Seite 40]
7.5 - 1.5 Conclusion [Seite 41]
7.6 - References [Seite 41]
8 - 2 Oil Spill Cleanup by Textiles [Seite 49]
8.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 49]
8.2 - 2.2 Causes of Oil Spilling [Seite 50]
8.3 - 2.3 Problems Faced Due to Oil Spilling [Seite 50]
8.4 - 2.4 Oil Sorption Phenomenon [Seite 51]
8.4.1 - 2.4.1 Absorption and Adsorption [Seite 51]
8.5 - 2.5 Removal of Oil Spill [Seite 52]
8.5.1 - 2.5.1 Sorbents for Removing Spilled Oil [Seite 53]
8.5.2 - 2.5.2 Textile Fibers for Removal of Oil Spills [Seite 54]
8.5.2.1 - 2.5.2.1 Kapak [Seite 55]
8.5.2.2 - 2.5.2.2 Raw Bagasse [Seite 55]
8.5.2.3 - 2.5.2.3 Cotton [Seite 56]
8.5.2.4 - 2.5.2.4 Milkweed Fibers [Seite 56]
8.5.2.5 - 2.5.2.5 Human Hair [Seite 57]
8.5.2.6 - 2.5.2.6 Polypropylene [Seite 58]
8.5.2.7 - 2.5.2.7 Sheep Fleece Fibers [Seite 58]
8.5.2.8 - 2.5.2.8 Kenaf [Seite 58]
8.6 - 2.6 Recent Developments for Effective Water Cleaning [Seite 59]
8.6.1 - 2.6.1 Porous Boron Nitride Nanosheets [Seite 59]
8.6.2 - 2.6.2 Carbon Nanofiber Aerogels [Seite 59]
8.7 - 2.7 Test Methods for Evaluation of Oil Sorbents [Seite 60]
8.7.1 - 2.7.1 Test Method for Oil Sorption Capacity [Seite 60]
8.7.2 - 2.7.2 Test Method for Oil Sorption Rate [Seite 61]
8.7.3 - 2.7.3 Test Method for Oil Retention [Seite 61]
8.7.4 - 2.7.4 Test Method for Reusability of Sorbents [Seite 62]
8.7.5 - 2.7.5 Test Method for Water Uptake and Buoyancy of Sorbents [Seite 62]
8.7.6 - 2.7.6 Test Method for Buoyancy of Sorbents [Seite 62]
8.8 - 2.8 Conclusions [Seite 63]
8.9 - References [Seite 63]
9 - 3 Pyridine and Bipyridine End-Functionalized Polylactide: Synthesis and Catalytic Applications [Seite 69]
9.1 - 3.1 Introduction [Seite 69]
9.2 - 3.2 Macroligand Synthesis [Seite 71]
9.3 - 3.3 Macroligand Coordination to Palladium [Seite 74]
9.4 - 3.4 Pd-Nanoparticles Supported onto End-Functionalized Stereocomplexes [Seite 77]
9.5 - 3.5 Catalytic Applications [Seite 80]
9.6 - 3.6 Outlook [Seite 85]
9.7 - References [Seite 86]
10 - 4 Functional Separation Membranes from Chitin and Chitosan Derivatives [Seite 91]
10.1 - 4.1 Introduction [Seite 91]
10.1.1 - 4.1.1 Characteristics of Chitin and Chitosan [Seite 92]
10.1.2 - 4.1.2 Membrane Formation Characteristics of Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives [Seite 93]
10.2 - 4.2 Preparation of Separation Membrane from Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives [Seite 95]
10.2.1 - 4.2.1 Membrane Preparation Method [Seite 95]
10.2.2 - 4.2.2 Membrane Structures [Seite 96]
10.3 - 4.3 Functional Separation Membranes from Chitin, Chitosan, and Their Derivatives [Seite 96]
10.3.1 - 4.3.1 Dialysis Membranes [Seite 96]
10.3.1.1 - 4.3.1.1 Principle of Dialysis [Seite 96]
10.3.1.2 - 4.3.1.2 Technology in Dialysis [Seite 97]
10.3.2 - 4.3.2 Reverse Osmosis Membranes [Seite 98]
10.3.2.1 - 4.3.2.1 Principle of Reverse Osmosis [Seite 98]
10.3.2.2 - 4.3.2.2 Technology in Reverse Osmosis [Seite 98]
10.3.3 - 4.3.3 Nanofiltration Membranes [Seite 99]
10.3.3.1 - 4.3.3.1 Principle of Nanofiltration [Seite 99]
10.3.3.2 - 4.3.3.2 Technology in Nanofiltration [Seite 99]
10.3.4 - 4.3.4 Ultrafiltration Membranes [Seite 101]
10.3.4.1 - 4.3.4.1 Principle of Ultrafiltration [Seite 101]
10.3.4.2 - 4.3.4.2 Technology in Ultrafiltration [Seite 102]
10.3.5 - 4.3.5 Microfiltration Membrane [Seite 104]
10.3.5.1 - 4.3.5.1 Principle of Microfiltration [Seite 104]
10.3.5.2 - 4.3.5.2 Technology in Microfiltration [Seite 104]
10.3.6 - 4.3.6 Pervaporation Membrane [Seite 105]
10.3.6.1 - 4.3.6.1 Principle of Pervaporation [Seite 105]
10.3.6.2 - 4.3.6.2 Technology in Pervaporation [Seite 105]
10.3.7 - 4.3.7 Evapomeation [Seite 112]
10.3.7.1 - 4.3.7.1 Principle of Evapomeation [Seite 112]
10.3.8 - 4.3.8 Temperature Difference-Controlled Evapomeation [Seite 116]
10.3.8.1 - 4.3.8.1 Principle of Temperature Difference-Controlled Evapomeation [Seite 116]
10.3.8.2 - 4.3.8.2 Technology in Temperature Difference-Controlled Evapomeation [Seite 117]
10.3.9 - 4.3.9 High-Temperature and High-Pressure Evapomeation [Seite 120]
10.3.9.1 - 4.3.9.1 Principle of High-Temperature and High-Pressure Evapomeation [Seite 120]
10.3.9.2 - 4.3.9.2 Technology in High-Temperature and High-Pressure Evapomeation [Seite 120]
10.3.10 - 4.3.10 Carrier Transport [Seite 122]
10.3.10.1 - 4.3.10.1 Principle of Carrier Transport [Seite 122]
10.3.11 - 4.3.11 Catalytic Membranes [Seite 127]
10.3.11.1 - 4.3.11.1 Principle of Catalytic Membrane [Seite 127]
10.3.12 - 4.3.12 Gas Permeation Membranes [Seite 130]
10.3.12.1 - 4.3.12.1 Principle of Gas Permeation [Seite 130]
10.3.13 - 4.3.13 Fuel Cell [Seite 131]
10.3.13.1 - 4.3.13.1 Principle of Fuel Cell [Seite 131]
10.3.13.2 - 4.3.13.2 Technology in Fuel Cell [Seite 133]
10.4 - 4.4 Conclusions [Seite 135]
10.5 - References [Seite 136]
11 - 5 Acrylated Epoxidized Flaxseed Oil Bio-Resin and Its Biocomposites [Seite 143]
11.1 - 5.1 Introduction [Seite 143]
11.2 - 5.2 Experimental [Seite 146]
11.2.1 - 5.2.1 Materials [Seite 146]
11.2.2 - 5.2.2 Acrylated Epoxidized Flaxseed Oil Bio-Resin Synthesis [Seite 146]
11.2.3 - 5.2.3 Chemical Treatment of Flax Fiber [Seite 147]
11.2.4 - 5.2.4 AEFO Bio-Resin-Based Biocomposite Samples Preparation [Seite 148]
11.2.5 - 5.2.5 PLA-, PP-, and HDPE-Based Biocomposite Samples Preparation [Seite 148]
11.2.6 - 5.2.6 Characterization of AEFO Bio-Resin and Its Biocomposites [Seite 148]
11.3 - 5.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 149]
11.3.1 - 5.3.1 Physical Properties [Seite 149]
11.3.2 - 5.3.2 Thermal Properties [Seite 151]
11.3.3 - 5.3.3 Mechanical Properties [Seite 151]
11.4 - 5.4 Conclusions [Seite 159]
11.5 - Acknowledgment [Seite 160]
11.6 - References [Seite 160]
12 - 6 Encapsulation of Inorganic Renewable Nanofiller [Seite 165]
12.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 165]
12.2 - 6.2 Synthesis of Polymer-Encapsulated Silica Nanoparticles [Seite 169]
12.2.1 - 6.2.1 Surface Modification of Silica Nanoparticles and Characterization [Seite 169]
12.2.2 - 6.2.2 Introduction of Differential Microemulsion Polymerization [Seite 171]
12.2.3 - 6.2.3 Synthesis and Characterization of Polymer-Encapsulated Inorganic Nanoparticles via In Situ Differential Microemulsion Polymerization [Seite 173]
12.2.4 - 6.2.4 Reinforcing Applications [Seite 176]
12.3 - 6.3 Concluding Remarks [Seite 182]
12.4 - Acknowledgments [Seite 183]
12.5 - References [Seite 183]
13 - 7 Chitosan Coating on Textile Fibers for Functional Properties [Seite 187]
13.1 - 7.1 Introduction [Seite 187]
13.1.1 - 7.1.1 Chitosan Cross-Linking and Grafting [Seite 189]
13.1.2 - 7.1.2 Biological Activity of Chitosan [Seite 190]
13.1.3 - 7.1.3 Chitosan Application in the Textile Field [Seite 191]
13.2 - 7.2 Antimicrobial Coating of Textiles by Chitosan UV Curing [Seite 193]
13.2.1 - 7.2.1 UV Curing of Chitosan on Textiles: Process Conditions and Results [Seite 194]
13.2.2 - 7.2.2 Characterization of the Chitosan-Treated Fabrics [Seite 195]
13.2.3 - 7.2.3 Sustainable Process of Antimicrobial Finishing of Cotton Fabrics at Semi-Industrial Level [Seite 197]
13.2.4 - 7.2.4 Chitosan-Coated Cotton Gauze by UV Grafting as Antimicrobial Water Filter [Seite 198]
13.2.5 - 7.2.5 Multifunctional Finishing of Wool Fabrics by Chitosan UV Grafting [Seite 202]
13.3 - 7.3 Chitosan Coating of Wool for Antifelting Properties [Seite 203]
13.4 - 7.4 Chitosan Coating on Textile Fibers to Increasing Uptake of Ionic Dyes in Dyeing [Seite 205]
13.5 - 7.5 Chitosan Coating on Cotton Filter for Removal of Dyes and Metal Ions from Wastewaters [Seite 208]
13.5.1 - 7.5.1 Chitosan-Coated Cotton Gauze by UV Grafting as Water Filter for the Removal of Dyes [Seite 209]
13.5.2 - 7.5.2 Chitosan-Coated Cotton Gauze by UV Grafting as Water Filter for the Removal of Metal Ions [Seite 211]
13.6 - 7.6 Conclusions [Seite 212]
13.7 - References [Seite 213]
14 - 8 Surface Functionalization of Cellulose Whiskers for Nonpolar Composites Applications [Seite 221]
14.1 - 8.1 Introduction [Seite 222]
14.1.1 - 8.1.1 Cellulose: Structure and Properties [Seite 222]
14.1.2 - 8.1.2 Cellulose from Natural Fibers [Seite 223]
14.1.3 - 8.1.3 Cellulose Whiskers [Seite 225]
14.1.4 - 8.1.4 Surface Functionalization of Cellulose Whiskers [Seite 227]
14.1.5 - 8.1.5 Cellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposites [Seite 228]
14.2 - 8.2 Experimental [Seite 229]
14.2.1 - 8.2.1 Materials [Seite 229]
14.2.2 - 8.2.2 Extraction of Cellulose Whiskers from Cotton Fibers [Seite 230]
14.2.3 - 8.2.3 Surface Functionalization of Cellulose Whiskers [Seite 230]
14.2.4 - 8.2.4 Processing of Nanocomposites Materials [Seite 230]
14.2.5 - 8.2.5 Characterization [Seite 230]
14.2.5.1 - 8.2.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy [Seite 230]
14.2.5.2 - 8.2.5.2 Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscopy [Seite 230]
14.2.5.3 - 8.2.5.3 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) [Seite 231]
14.2.5.4 - 8.2.5.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy [Seite 231]
14.2.5.5 - 8.2.5.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy [Seite 231]
14.2.5.6 - 8.2.5.6 Zeta-Potential Analysis [Seite 231]
14.2.5.7 - 8.2.5.7 X-Ray Diffraction [Seite 232]
14.2.5.8 - 8.2.5.8 Thermogravimetric Analysis [Seite 232]
14.2.5.9 - 8.2.5.9 Differential Scanning Calorimetry [Seite 232]
14.2.5.10 - 8.2.5.10 Tensile Tests [Seite 233]
14.3 - 8.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 233]
14.3.1 - 8.3.1 Cellulose Whiskers [Seite 233]
14.3.2 - 8.3.2 CW/LDPE and CWMA/LDPE Nanocomposites [Seite 237]
14.4 - 8.4 Conclusion [Seite 241]
14.5 - References [Seite 241]
15 - 9 Impact of Chemical Treatment and the Manufacturing Process on Mechanical, Thermal, and Rheological Properties of Natural Fibers-Based Composites [Seite 247]
15.1 - 9.1 Introduction [Seite 247]
15.2 - 9.2 Physicochemical Characteristics of Natural Fibers [Seite 250]
15.3 - 9.3 Problematic [Seite 252]
15.4 - 9.4 Natural Fibers Treatments [Seite 253]
15.5 - 9.5 Composites Manufacturing [Seite 257]
15.6 - 9.6 Composites Properties [Seite 258]
15.7 - 9.7 Conclusion [Seite 269]
15.8 - References [Seite 270]
16 - 10 Biopolymers Modification and Their Utilization in Biomimetic Composites for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering [Seite 275]
16.1 - 10.1 Introduction [Seite 276]
16.2 - 10.2 Failure, Defect, and Design: Role of Composites [Seite 277]
16.3 - 10.3 Cell-ECM Composite Hierarchy in Bone-Cartilage Interface [Seite 279]
16.4 - 10.4 Polymers for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering [Seite 280]
16.5 - 10.5 Polymer Modification for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering [Seite 283]
16.5.1 - 10.5.1 Polymer Blends [Seite 283]
16.5.2 - 10.5.2 Synthetically Modified Polymers [Seite 286]
16.5.3 - 10.5.3 Polymer Cross-Linking [Seite 288]
16.5.3.1 - 10.5.3.1 Chemical Cross-Linking [Seite 288]
16.5.3.2 - 10.5.3.2 Physical Cross-Linking [Seite 289]
16.5.3.3 - 10.5.3.3 Injectable Hydrogels [Seite 289]
16.5.4 - 10.5.4 Interpenetrating Networks (IPN) [Seite 290]
16.5.5 - 10.5.5 Nanocomposites [Seite 291]
16.5.5.1 - 10.5.5.1 Nanoparticle Matrix Composites [Seite 291]
16.5.5.2 - 10.5.5.2 Nanofiber Matrix Composites [Seite 292]
16.5.5.3 - 10.5.5.3 Surface-Modified Nanofillers Matrix Composites [Seite 292]
16.5.6 - 10.5.6 Organic-Inorganic (O/I) Hybrids [Seite 292]
16.5.6.1 - 10.5.6.1 Class I O/I Hybrids with Weak Interaction (van der Waals and H-bonds) [Seite 292]
16.5.6.2 - 10.5.6.2 Class II O/I Hybrids with Strong Interaction (Covalent Bonds) [Seite 293]
16.6 - 10.6 Composite Scaffolds for Osteochondral Tissue Engineering [Seite 293]
16.6.1 - 10.6.1 Structural Composites [Seite 293]
16.6.1.1 - 10.6.1.1 Single-Layer Scaffolds [Seite 294]
16.6.1.2 - 10.6.1.2 Stratified Scaffolds [Seite 294]
16.6.2 - 10.6.2 Functional Biomimetic Composites [Seite 295]
16.6.2.1 - 10.6.2.1 Chemical Gradients [Seite 296]
16.6.2.2 - 10.6.2.2 Physical Gradients [Seite 296]
16.7 - 10.7 Osteochondral Composite Scaffolds: Clinical Status [Seite 297]
16.8 - 10.8 Current Challenges and Future Direction [Seite 298]
16.9 - References [Seite 298]
17 - 11 Fibers from Natural Resources [Seite 309]
17.1 - 11.1 Introduction [Seite 309]
17.2 - 11.2 Materials and Methods [Seite 310]
17.2.1 - 11.2.1 Fiber Materials [Seite 310]
17.2.2 - 11.2.2 Analytics [Seite 312]
17.3 - 11.3 Fiber Characteristics [Seite 312]
17.3.1 - 11.3.1 Overview of Fibers [Seite 312]
17.3.1.1 - 11.3.1.1 Natural Plant Fibers [Seite 312]
17.3.1.2 - 11.3.1.2 Peat Fibers [Seite 315]
17.3.1.3 - 11.3.1.3 Regenerated Fibers: Cellulosic Type [Seite 315]
17.3.1.4 - 11.3.1.4 Regenerated Fibers: Protein Type [Seite 316]
17.3.2 - 11.3.2 Fiber Properties [Seite 317]
17.3.2.1 - 11.3.2.1 Infrared Spectroscopy Data [Seite 318]
17.3.2.2 - 11.3.2.2 Microscopic Shape and Topography of Fibers [Seite 321]
17.3.2.3 - 11.3.2.3 EDS Measurements and Surface Composition [Seite 324]
17.4 - 11.4 Conclusions [Seite 326]
17.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 326]
17.6 - References [Seite 327]
18 - 12 Strategies to Improve the Functionality of Starch-Based Films [Seite 333]
18.1 - 12.1 Introduction [Seite 333]
18.2 - 12.2 Starch: Sources and Main Uses [Seite 334]
18.2.1 - 12.2.1 Starch Structure [Seite 336]
18.2.2 - 12.2.2 Starch Films: Development and Physical Properties [Seite 337]
18.3 - 12.3 Strategies to Improve the Functionality of Biopolymer-Based Films [Seite 339]
18.3.1 - 12.3.1 Blends of Starch with Different Biopolymers [Seite 340]
18.3.1.1 - 12.3.1.1 Poly(vinyl alcohol) [Seite 340]
18.3.1.2 - 12.3.1.2 Other Biopolymers [Seite 342]
18.3.1.3 - 12.3.1.3 Reinforcement Materials: Fibers and Nanoreinforcements [Seite 346]
18.4 - 12.4 Bioactive Compounds with Antimicrobial Activity [Seite 348]
18.4.1 - 12.4.1 Substances from Mineral Sources [Seite 348]
18.4.2 - 12.4.2 Substances from Plant Extracts [Seite 350]
18.5 - 12.5 Conclusion [Seite 351]
18.6 - References [Seite 351]
19 - 13 The Effect of Gamma Radiation on Biodegradability of Natural Fiber/PP-HMSPP Foams: A Study of Thermal Stability and Biodegradability [Seite 361]
19.1 - 13.1 Introduction [Seite 361]
19.2 - 13.2 Materials and Methods [Seite 364]
19.2.1 - 13.2.1 Materials [Seite 364]
19.2.1.1 - 13.2.1.1 Polypropylene [Seite 364]
19.2.1.2 - 13.2.1.2 HMSPP (High-Melt-Strength Polypropylene) [Seite 364]
19.2.1.3 - 13.2.1.3 Sugarcane Bagasse [Seite 364]
19.2.2 - 13.2.2 Mixtures Preparation [Seite 364]
19.2.2.1 - 13.2.2.1 PP/HMSPP 50% (PP/HMSPP) [Seite 364]
19.2.2.2 - 13.2.2.2 Foaming [Seite 365]
19.2.2.3 - 13.2.2.3 Gamma-Radiation Treatment [Seite 365]
19.2.3 - 13.2.3 Methods [Seite 365]
19.2.3.1 - 13.2.3.1 TGAs-Thermogravimetric Analyses [Seite 365]
19.2.3.2 - 13.2.3.2 Laboratory Soil Burial Test [Seite 365]
19.2.3.3 - 13.2.3.3 Infrared Spectroscopy [Seite 366]
19.3 - 13.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 366]
19.3.1 - 13.3.1 TGA-Thermogravimetric Analyses [Seite 366]
19.3.2 - 13.3.2 Laboratory Soil Burial Test [Seite 370]
19.3.3 - 13.3.3 Infrared Spectrum Analyses [Seite 371]
19.4 - 13.4 Conclusions [Seite 373]
19.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 373]
19.6 - References [Seite 373]
20 - 14 Surface Functionalization Through Vapor-Phase Assisted Surface Polymerization (VASP) on Natural Materials from Agricultural By-Products [Seite 377]
20.1 - 14.1 Introduction [Seite 377]
20.2 - 14.2 Surface Modification by Steam Treatment [Seite 380]
20.3 - 14.3 Surface Modification by Compatibilizer [Seite 381]
20.4 - 14.4 Vapor-Phase-Assisted Surface Polymerization [Seite 382]
20.5 - 14.5 Vapor-Phase-Assisted Surface Modification of Biomass Fillers [Seite 384]
20.6 - 14.6 Vapor-Phase Chemical Modification of Biomass Fillers [Seite 387]
20.7 - 14.7 Green Composites Through VASP Process [Seite 390]
20.8 - 14.8 Conclusions and Outlook [Seite 394]
20.9 - References [Seite 396]
21 - 15 Okra Bast Fiber as Potential Reinforcement Element of Biocomposites: Can It Be the Flax of the Future? [Seite 401]
21.1 - 15.1 Introduction [Seite 401]
21.2 - 15.2 Cultivation and Harvesting of Okra Plant [Seite 403]
21.3 - 15.3 Extraction of Bast Fibers from Okra Plant [Seite 404]
21.4 - 15.4 Composition, Morphology, and Properties of Okra Bast Fiber [Seite 405]
21.4.1 - 15.4.1 Chemical Composition of Okra Bast Fiber [Seite 405]
21.4.2 - 15.4.2 Morphology of Okra Bast Fiber [Seite 406]
21.4.3 - 15.4.3 Performance Characteristics of Okra Bast Fiber [Seite 409]
21.4.3.1 - 15.4.3.1 Mechanical Properties [Seite 409]
21.4.3.2 - 15.4.3.2 Moisture Absorption [Seite 409]
21.4.3.3 - 15.4.3.3 Thermal Durability [Seite 412]
21.4.3.4 - 15.4.3.4 Fiber Density [Seite 412]
21.4.3.5 - 15.4.3.5 Variability [Seite 413]
21.5 - 15.5 Modification Methods of Okra Bast fiber [Seite 413]
21.5.1 - 15.5.1 Scouring [Seite 413]
21.5.2 - 15.5.2 Alkali Treatment [Seite 414]
21.5.3 - 15.5.3 Bleaching [Seite 417]
21.5.4 - 15.5.4 Acetylation [Seite 418]
21.5.5 - 15.5.5 Permanganate Treatment [Seite 418]
21.5.6 - 15.5.6 Graft Copolymerization [Seite 419]
21.6 - 15.6 Potential Application Areas of Okra Bast Fiber-Reinforced Biocomposites [Seite 420]
21.7 - 15.7 Conclusions and Future Work [Seite 422]
21.8 - References [Seite 422]
22 - 16 Silane Coupling Agents Used in Natural Fiber/Plastic Composites [Seite 429]
22.1 - 16.1 Introduction [Seite 429]
22.2 - 16.2 Hydrolysis of Silanes [Seite 431]
22.2.1 - 16.2.1 Silane Structures [Seite 431]
22.2.2 - 16.2.2 Hydrolysis Processes of Silanes [Seite 432]
22.3 - 16.3 Interaction with Natural Fibers [Seite 435]
22.4 - 16.4 Interaction with Plastics [Seite 437]
22.4.1 - 16.4.1 Coupling via Physical Compatibility [Seite 437]
22.4.2 - 16.4.2 Coupling via Chemical Reaction [Seite 440]
22.5 - 16.5 Summary [Seite 444]
22.6 - Acknowledgments [Seite 445]
22.7 - Abbreviations [Seite 445]
22.8 - References [Seite 446]
23 - 17 Composites of Olefin Polymer/Natural Fibers: The Surface Modifications on Natural Fibers [Seite 453]
23.1 - 17.1 Introduction [Seite 453]
23.1.1 - 17.1.1 Natural and Synthetic Fibers [Seite 453]
23.2 - 17.2 Vegetable Fiber [Seite 454]
23.3 - 17.3 Chemical Treatments [Seite 455]
23.4 - 17.4 Mercerization [Seite 456]
23.5 - 17.5 Acetylation Process: Way to Insert Fibers on Hydrophilic Polymers [Seite 460]
23.5.1 - 17.5.1 Introduction [Seite 460]
23.5.2 - 17.5.2 The Origin of Problem [Seite 460]
23.6 - 17.6 Acetylation Treatment [Seite 461]
23.7 - 17.7 Catalyst for Acetylation Process [Seite 461]
23.8 - 17.7 Methods for Determination Acetylation [Seite 463]
23.8.1 - 17.7.1 Degree of Substitution [Seite 463]
23.9 - 17.8 Weight Percentage Gain [Seite 464]
23.10 - 17.9 Fourier Transformer Infrared Spectroscopy [Seite 464]
23.11 - 17.10 Chemical Modification of Fiber through the Reaction with Polymer-Modified Olefin [Seite 465]
23.12 - 17.11 Other Treatments [Seite 467]
23.13 - 17.12 Maximum Stress in Tension [Seite 470]
23.14 - 17.13 Elongation at Break [Seite 471]
23.15 - 17.14 Elastic Modulus [Seite 471]
23.16 - 17.15 Impact Resistance [Seite 472]
23.17 - References [Seite 473]
24 - 18 Surface Functionalization of Biomaterials [Seite 479]
24.1 - 18.1 Introduction [Seite 479]
24.2 - 18.2 Biomaterials [Seite 480]
24.2.1 - 18.2.1 Rigidity and Deformability [Seite 482]
24.2.2 - 18.2.2 Material Surface Roughness [Seite 483]
24.2.3 - 18.2.3 Surface Chemistry [Seite 483]
24.2.4 - 18.2.4 Cell Adhesion, Proliferation, and Differentiation [Seite 486]
24.3 - 18.3 Surface Modification Technologies [Seite 488]
24.3.1 - 18.3.1 Surface Roughening and Patterning [Seite 489]
24.3.2 - 18.3.2 Surface Films and Coatings [Seite 492]
24.3.3 - 18.3.3 Chemical Modification of the Surface for Biomolecules and Pharmaceuticals Delivery [Seite 493]
24.4 - 18.4 Surface Functionalization of Metallic Biomaterials: Selected Examples [Seite 497]
24.5 - 18.5 Surface Functionalization of Polymeric Biomaterials: Selected Examples [Seite 500]
24.6 - 18.6 Conclusions and Future Directions [Seite 503]
24.7 - References [Seite 505]
25 - 19 Thermal and Mechanical Behaviors of Biorenewable Fibers-Based Polymer Composites [Seite 513]
25.1 - 19.1 Introduction [Seite 513]
25.2 - 19.2 Classification of Natural Fibers [Seite 516]
25.3 - 19.3 Structure of Biofiber [Seite 516]
25.4 - 19.4 Surface Treatment of Natural Fibers [Seite 518]
25.5 - 19.5 Hemp Fiber Composites [Seite 521]
25.6 - 19.6 Bamboo Fiber Composites [Seite 522]
25.7 - 19.7 Banana Fiber Composites [Seite 523]
25.8 - 19.8 Kenaf Fiber Composites [Seite 524]
25.9 - 19.9 Coir Fiber Composites [Seite 525]
25.10 - 19.10 Jute Fiber Composites [Seite 526]
25.11 - 19.11 Flax Fiber Composites [Seite 527]
25.12 - 19.12 Date Palm Fibers Composites [Seite 528]
25.13 - 19.13 Rice Straw Fiber Composites [Seite 528]
25.14 - 19.14 Agava Fibers Composites [Seite 529]
25.15 - 19.15 Sisal Fibers Composites [Seite 529]
25.16 - 19.16 Pineapple Leaf Fiber Composites [Seite 530]
25.17 - 19.17 Basalt Fiber Composites [Seite 530]
25.18 - 19.18 Grewia optiva Fiber Composites [Seite 531]
25.19 - 19.19 Luffa Fiber Composites [Seite 531]
25.20 - 19.20 Some Other Natural Fibers Composites [Seite 534]
25.21 - 19.21 Conclusion [Seite 536]
25.22 - References [Seite 537]
26 - 20 Natural and Artificial Diversification of Starch [Seite 543]
26.1 - 20.1 Introduction [Seite 543]
26.2 - 20.2 Natural Diversification of Starches [Seite 548]
26.3 - 20.3 Artificial Diversification of Starches [Seite 553]
26.4 - References [Seite 557]
27 - 21 Role of Radiation and Surface Modification on Biofiber for Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Review [Seite 563]
27.1 - 21.1 Introduction [Seite 563]
27.2 - 21.2 Natural Fibers [Seite 564]
27.3 - 21.3 Chemistry of Cellulose in NF [Seite 566]
27.4 - 21.4 Drawback of NFs [Seite 567]
27.5 - 21.5 Surface Modification of NFs [Seite 567]
27.5.1 - 21.5.1 Silane as Coupling Agent on NFs [Seite 568]
27.6 - 21.6 Radiation Effect on the Surface of Biofiber [Seite 570]
27.6.1 - 21.6.1 Nonionizing Radiation [Seite 570]
27.6.2 - 21.6.2 Ionizing Radiation [Seite 571]
27.7 - 21.7 Biocomposites [Seite 572]
27.7.1 - 21.7.1 Effect of Radiation on Biocomposites [Seite 574]
27.8 - 21.8 Hybrid Biocomposites [Seite 574]
27.8.1 - 21.8.1 Effect of ?-Radiation on Hybrid Biocomposites [Seite 575]
27.9 - 21.9 Nanofillers and Nanocomposites [Seite 576]
27.10 - 21.10 Initiative in Product Development of NF Composite [Seite 576]
27.11 - 21.11 Conclusion [Seite 577]
27.12 - Acknowledgments [Seite 578]
27.13 - References [Seite 578]
28 - Index [Seite 585]
29 - EULA [Seite 597]