Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Volume 2, Design and Manufacturing

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright Page [Seite 6]
4 - Dedication [Seite 7]
5 - Contents [Seite 9]
6 - Preface [Seite 23]
7 - 1 Design and Manufacturing of High-Performance Green Composites Based on Renewable Materials [Seite 25]
7.1 - 1.1 Introduction [Seite 25]
7.2 - 1.2 Bio-Based Epoxy Matrix - State-of-the-Art [Seite 27]
7.3 - 1.3 Curing of Bio-Based Epoxy Resins - an Ecological Approach [Seite 34]
7.4 - 1.4 Natural Fibers [Seite 36]
7.4.1 - 1.4.1 Mechanical Performance of Bast Fibers [Seite 36]
7.5 - 1.5 Processing Routes [Seite 38]
7.6 - 1.6 Applications and Requirements [Seite 41]
7.7 - 1.7 Concluding Remarks [Seite 42]
7.8 - Acknowledgement [Seite 42]
7.9 - References [Seite 42]
8 - 2 Manufacturing of High Performance Biomass-Based Polyesters by Rheological Approach [Seite 49]
8.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 49]
8.2 - 2.2 Linear Viscoelastic Properties [Seite 50]
8.2.1 - 2.2.1 Rheological Parameters [Seite 50]
8.2.2 - 2.2.2 Effect of Degradation [Seite 52]
8.3 - 2.3 Enhancement of Crystallization Rate [Seite 56]
8.4 - 2.4 Rheological Modification for Marked Melt Elasticity [Seite 62]
8.4.1 - 2.4.1 Addition of Flexible Nanofiber [Seite 62]
8.4.2 - 2.4.2 Addition of Critical Gel [Seite 66]
8.5 - 2.5 Conclusion [Seite 68]
8.6 - Acknowledgments [Seite 68]
8.7 - References [Seite 69]
9 - 3 Design of Fibrous Composite Materials for Saving Energy [Seite 73]
9.1 - 3.1 Introduction [Seite 73]
9.1.1 - 3.1.1 Energy and Power Efficiency [Seite 76]
9.1.2 - 3.1.2 Energy Losses [Seite 77]
9.2 - 3.2 Microthermomechanical Fiber Composites Behavior [Seite 78]
9.2.1 - 3.2.1 Challenges of Numerical Simulation of Fibrous Composite Materials [Seite 78]
9.2.1.1 - 3.2.1.1 Large Gradients of Physical Fields [Seite 79]
9.2.1.2 - 3.2.1.2 Material Micro-Structure [Seite 79]
9.2.1.3 - 3.2.1.3 Interaction [Seite 79]
9.2.1.4 - 3.2.1.4 Interfacial Conditions [Seite 80]
9.2.1.5 - 3.2.1.5 3D Problem [Seite 80]
9.2.2 - 3.2.2 Computational Methods for Fibrous Composite Materials [Seite 80]
9.2.3 - 3.2.3 Meshless Computational Methods [Seite 82]
9.2.4 - 3.2.4 Method of Continuous Source Functions [Seite 83]
9.2.4.1 - 3.2.4.1 Source Functions [Seite 84]
9.2.4.2 - 3.2.4.2 Model Description [Seite 85]
9.2.5 - 3.2.5 Numerical Results of MCSF - Microthermomechanical Response [Seite 89]
9.2.5.1 - 3.2.5.1 Single Fiber in Matrix [Seite 89]
9.2.5.2 - 3.2.5.2 Fiber Patch of Regularly Distributed Fibers [Seite 91]
9.2.5.3 - 3.2.5.3 Interaction of Two Overlapping Fibers [Seite 95]
9.2.6 - 3.2.6 Numerical Simulation of Wave Propagation and Experimental Testing [Seite 96]
9.3 - 3.3 Industrial Applications - Case Studies [Seite 98]
9.3.1 - 3.3.1 Printing Industry Application [Seite 99]
9.3.1.1 - 3.3.1.1 Vibrations and Component Joints Accuracy [Seite 101]
9.3.1.2 - 3.3.1.2 Use of Composite Structures for Flexoprinting [Seite 102]
9.3.1.3 - 3.3.1.3 Discussion [Seite 103]
9.3.2 - 3.3.2 Aerospace Industry Application [Seite 104]
9.3.2.1 - 3.3.2.1 Composite Materials in Plane Viper SD-4 [Seite 104]
9.3.2.2 - 3.3.2.2 Discussion and Potential of Fibrous Composite Usage [Seite 105]
9.3.3 - 3.3.3 Mechanical Engineering Industry Application [Seite 107]
9.3.3.1 - 3.3.3.1 Nanostructured Coating and Microstructuring of Cutting Edge [Seite 109]
9.3.3.2 - 3.3.3.2 Nanocomposite Coating [Seite 109]
9.3.3.3 - 3.3.3.3 Discussion [Seite 111]
9.4 - 3.4 Conclusions [Seite 111]
9.5 - References [Seite 112]
10 - 4 Design and Manufacturing of Bio-Based Sandwich Structures [Seite 117]
10.1 - 4.1 Introduction [Seite 117]
10.2 - 4.2 Bio-Based Core Materials [Seite 119]
10.2.1 - 4.2.1 Plant-Based Cores [Seite 119]
10.2.2 - 4.2.2 Biopolymer-Based Foam Cores [Seite 119]
10.2.3 - 4.2.3 Biopolymer-Based Cores [Seite 121]
10.3 - 4.3 Manufacture of Sandwich Panels [Seite 123]
10.4 - 4.4 Recent Studies on Bio-Based Sandwich Panels [Seite 125]
10.5 - 4.5 Applications of Bio-Based Sandwich Panels [Seite 131]
10.6 - 4.6 Conclusions [Seite 132]
10.7 - References [Seite 132]
11 - 5 Design and Manufacture of Biodegradable Products from Renewable Resources [Seite 135]
11.1 - 5.1 Introduction [Seite 135]
11.2 - 5.2 Materials and Processes for Biodegradable Composites [Seite 136]
11.2.1 - 5.2.1 Nature of Biodegradable Polymers [Seite 136]
11.2.2 - 5.2.2 Processing of Thermoplastic Starch Bulk Material [Seite 137]
11.2.3 - 5.2.3 Processing of Thermoplastic Starch Films [Seite 137]
11.2.4 - 5.2.4 Biodegradable Reinforcement [Seite 138]
11.2.5 - 5.2.5 Biodegradable Bulk Composites [Seite 139]
11.2.6 - 5.2.6 Biodegradable Film Composites [Seite 140]
11.3 - 5.3 Performance of Biodegradable Composites Under Service Conditions [Seite 140]
11.3.1 - 5.3.1 Thermal Stability [Seite 140]
11.3.2 - 5.3.2 Water Uptake [Seite 141]
11.3.3 - 5.3.3 Biodegradation [Seite 141]
11.4 - 5.4 Case Studies [Seite 142]
11.4.1 - 5.4.1 Use of Biodegradable Composites in the Transport Industry, with Special Reference to Motorcar Panels [Seite 142]
11.4.1.1 - 5.4.1.1 Introduction [Seite 142]
11.4.1.2 - 5.4.1.2 Materials and Manufacturing Processes for Interior Panels [Seite 142]
11.4.1.3 - 5.4.1.3 Performance Indices of Interior Panels [Seite 143]
11.4.2 - 5.4.2 Use of Biodegradable Composites in the Packaging Industry, with Special Reference to Disposable Flexible Food Packaging [Seite 146]
11.4.2.1 - 5.4.2.1 Introduction [Seite 146]
11.4.2.2 - 5.4.2.2 Flexible Packaging Materials [Seite 148]
11.4.3 - 5.4.3 Use of Biodegradable Composites in Biomedical Applications, with Special Reference to Dissolvable Bone Plates [Seite 149]
11.4.3.1 - 5.4.3.1 Introduction [Seite 149]
11.4.3.2 - 5.4.3.2 Comparison of Candidate Bone Fixation Materials [Seite 153]
11.5 - References [Seite 153]
12 - 6 Manufacturing and Characterization of Quicklime (CaO) Filled ZA-27 Metal Alloy Composites for Single-Row Deep Groove Ball Bearing [Seite 157]
12.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 157]
12.2 - 6.2 Experimental Details [Seite 158]
12.2.1 - 6.2.1 Raw Materials [Seite 158]
12.2.2 - 6.2.2 Fabrication of Composites [Seite 159]
12.2.3 - 6.2.3 Physical and Mechanical Characterization [Seite 159]
12.2.3.1 - 6.2.3.1 Density and Void Contents [Seite 159]
12.2.3.2 - 6.2.3.2 Hardness [Seite 159]
12.2.3.3 - 6.2.3.3 Compressive Strength [Seite 160]
12.2.3.4 - 6.2.3.4 Impact Strength [Seite 160]
12.2.3.5 - 6.2.3.5 Bending Strength [Seite 160]
12.2.4 - 6.2.4 Fracture Toughness Analysis [Seite 160]
12.2.5 - 6.2.5 Contact Stress Analysis of the CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites Using FEM Element Type and Meshing Procedure [Seite 161]
12.2.5.1 - 6.2.5.1 Contact Model [Seite 161]
12.2.5.2 - 6.2.5.2 Boundary Condition and Application of Load [Seite 163]
12.2.5.3 - 6.2.5.3 Structural Analysis [Seite 163]
12.2.5.4 - 6.2.5.4 Numerical Modeling [Seite 164]
12.2.5.5 - 6.2.5.5 Mathematical Modeling [Seite 164]
12.2.6 - 6.2.6 Hardness Analysis of the CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites Using FEM [Seite 165]
12.2.6.1 - 6.2.6.1 Finite Element Model [Seite 165]
12.2.6.2 - 6.2.6.2 Element Type and Meshing [Seite 165]
12.2.6.3 - 6.2.6.3 Material Properties and Boundary Condition [Seite 167]
12.2.6.4 - 6.2.6.4 Mathematical Modeling [Seite 167]
12.3 - 6.3 Result and Discussions [Seite 168]
12.3.1 - 6.3.1 Effect of Void Content on CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 168]
12.3.2 - 6.3.2 Effect of Hardness on CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 169]
12.3.3 - 6.3.3 Effect of Compressive Strength on CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 170]
12.3.4 - 6.3.4 Effect of Flexural Strength on CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 171]
12.3.5 - 6.3.5 Effect of Impact Strength on CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Aalloy Composites [Seite 172]
12.3.6 - 6.3.6 Effect of Fracture Toughness on CaO Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 173]
12.3.7 - 6.3.7 Fractography of CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites After Fracture Test [Seite 174]
12.3.8 - 6.3.8 Effect of Hardness and Contact Stress and Deformation of CaO Particulates Filled ZA-27 Alloy Composites [Seite 176]
12.4 - 6.4 Conclusions [Seite 178]
12.5 - Acknowledgement [Seite 179]
12.6 - References [Seite 179]
13 - 7 Manufacturing of Composites from Chicken Feathers and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) [Seite 183]
13.1 - 7.1 Introduction [Seite 183]
13.2 - 7.2 Experimental [Seite 188]
13.3 - 7.3 Results and Discussion [Seite 189]
13.3.1 - 7.3.1 Processability [Seite 189]
13.3.2 - 7.3.2 Thermal Properties [Seite 190]
13.3.3 - 7.3.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) [Seite 191]
13.3.4 - 7.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) [Seite 194]
13.4 - 7.4 Conclusions [Seite 196]
13.5 - Acknowledgments [Seite 196]
13.6 - References [Seite 196]
14 - 8 Production of Porous Carbons from Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Gels: Applications [Seite 199]
14.1 - 8.1 Introduction [Seite 199]
14.2 - 8.2 Synthesis of Aerogels [Seite 202]
14.2.1 - 8.2.1 Synthesis of Resorcinol-Formaldehyde Gels [Seite 202]
14.3 - 8.3 Polymeric Gels from Renewable Raw Materials [Seite 204]
14.4 - 8.4 Carbonization of Polymeric Resins [Seite 206]
14.5 - 8.5 Drying the Polymeric Gel [Seite 206]
14.5.1 - 8.5.1 Supercritical and Cryogenic Drying [Seite 206]
14.5.2 - 8.5.2 Structure and Properties of Xero-, Cryo- and Supercritical Gels [Seite 207]
14.6 - 8.6 Gel Stabilization [Seite 209]
14.6.1 - 8.6.1 The Use of Surfactants During the Synthesis of Resins [Seite 209]
14.6.2 - 8.6.2 The Use of Polyelectrolytes as Pore Stabilizer During the Synthesis of Resins [Seite 211]
14.7 - 8.7 Pyrolysis of R-F Resins [Seite 212]
14.8 - 8.8 Applications of the Gels [Seite 212]
14.8.1 - 8.8.1 Resorcinol-Formaldehyde-Based Porous Carbon as Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production and Fischer Reaction [Seite 212]
14.8.2 - 8.8.2 Porous Carbon Obtained from R-F Resins as an Electrode Material for Supercapacitors [Seite 214]
14.9 - 8.9 Conclusions [Seite 215]
14.10 - References [Seite 216]
15 - 9 Composites Using Agricultural Wastes [Seite 221]
15.1 - 9.1 Introduction [Seite 221]
15.2 - 9.2 Natural Fibers Classification [Seite 224]
15.3 - 9.3 Types of Plant Fibers [Seite 225]
15.3.1 - 9.3.1 Natural Fiber Materials [Seite 225]
15.3.1.1 - 9.3.1.1 Lignocelluloses Structure [Seite 225]
15.3.1.2 - 9.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties of Natural Fibers [Seite 229]
15.3.2 - 9.3.2 Straw as a Reinforcement Material [Seite 229]
15.3.2.1 - 9.3.2.1 The Fractions of Straw [Seite 229]
15.3.2.2 - 9.3.2.2 The Morphology of Straw [Seite 232]
15.3.2.3 - 9.3.2.3 Chemical Composition of the Straw [Seite 233]
15.4 - 9.4 Composite Mechanical Properties [Seite 235]
15.4.1 - 9.4.1 Theoretical Principles of Fiber Reinforcement [Seite 235]
15.4.2 - 9.4.2 Concept of Critical Volume Fraction [Seite 238]
15.4.3 - 9.4.3 Critical Fiber Aspect Ratio [Seite 239]
15.5 - 9.5 Industry Process of Some Biocomposites Using Agricultural Wastes [Seite 241]
15.5.1 - 9.5.1 Earth Bricks [Seite 241]
15.5.1.1 - 9.5.1.1 Introduction [Seite 241]
15.5.1.2 - 9.5.1.2 Materials [Seite 242]
15.5.1.3 - 9.5.1.3 Bricks Preparation [Seite 243]
15.5.1.4 - 9.5.1.4 Microstructure of Earth Bricks [Seite 244]
15.5.1.5 - 9.5.1.5 Bricks Properties [Seite 248]
15.5.2 - 9.5.2 Earth Plaster Composites for Straw Bale Buildings [Seite 251]
15.5.2.1 - 9.5.2.1 Materials [Seite 251]
15.5.2.2 - 9.5.2.2 Composite Properties [Seite 253]
15.5.3 - 9.5.3 Embankments and Dams [Seite 258]
15.6 - References [Seite 259]
16 - 10 Manufacturing of Rice Waste-Based Natural Fiber Polymer Composites from Thermosetting vs. Thermoplastic Matrices [Seite 265]
16.1 - 10.1 General Introduction [Seite 265]
16.2 - 10.2 Scope Survey of Agro-Based NFPC Composites [Seite 267]
16.2.1 - 10.2.1 Factors Affecting the Properties of NFPC [Seite 268]
16.2.1.1 - 10.2.1.1 Thermosetting Polymers [Seite 268]
16.2.1.2 - 10.2.1.2 Thermoplastic Polymers [Seite 269]
16.2.2 - 10.2.2 Improving the Compatibility Between Matrix and Fiber [Seite 270]
16.2.2.1 - 10.2.2.1 Mechanical Pretreatment [Seite 270]
16.2.2.2 - 10.2.2.2 Physical Pretreatment [Seite 270]
16.2.2.3 - 10.2.2.3 Chemical Pretreatment [Seite 271]
16.2.2.4 - 10.2.2.4 Biological Pretreatment [Seite 272]
16.3 - 10.3 Optimizing the Conditions for Production of High Performance Natural Fiber Polymer Composites [Seite 272]
16.3.1 - 10.3.1 Material and Methods [Seite 273]
16.3.1.1 - 10.3.1.1 Natural Fibers Component [Seite 273]
16.3.1.2 - 10.3.1.2 Matrices Polymers [Seite 273]
16.3.1.3 - 10.3.1.3 NFPC Preparation and Tests [Seite 274]
16.3.2 - 10.3.2 Results & Discussion [Seite 274]
16.3.2.1 - 10.3.2.1 Evaluating the Rice Waste-Polyester-Based NFPC [Seite 275]
16.3.2.2 - 10.3.2.2 Comparisons Based on Evaluating Rice Wastes-Polypropylene-Based NFPC and Rice Wastes-PS -Based NFPC [Seite 278]
16.3.3 - 10.3.3 Conclusions [Seite 280]
16.4 - Acknowledgment [Seite 282]
16.5 - References [Seite 282]
17 - 11 Thermoplastic Polymeric Composites and Polymers: Their Potential in a Dialogue Between Art and Technology [Seite 287]
17.1 - 11.1 Introduction [Seite 287]
17.2 - 11.2 "Organic Beauty" in 1998 [Seite 289]
17.3 - 11.3 "Organic Beauty" and Other Sculptures in 2014 [Seite 292]
17.4 - 11.4 Laboratory Experiments [Seite 300]
17.5 - 11.5 Final Remarks [Seite 306]
17.6 - Acknowledgments [Seite 309]
17.7 - References [Seite 309]
18 - 12 Natural Fiber Reinforced PLA Composites: Effect of Shape of Fiber Elements on Properties of Composites [Seite 311]
18.1 - 12.1 Introduction [Seite 311]
18.2 - 12.2 Natural Reinforcers [Seite 314]
18.2.1 - 12.2.1 Chemical and Anatomical Structure of Plants [Seite 314]
18.2.2 - 12.2.2 Wood Elements as Reinforcers [Seite 316]
18.2.3 - 12.2.3 Annual Plants for Continuous Fibers [Seite 316]
18.3 - 12.3 Element Morphology [Seite 317]
18.3.1 - 12.3.1 Producing of Wood Elements - Size Reduction [Seite 317]
18.3.1.1 - 12.3.1.1 Size Reduction by Mechanical Processes - Production of Particle Elements [Seite 317]
18.3.1.2 - 12.3.1.2 Size Reduction by Thermo-Mechanical Process - Production of Fiber Elements [Seite 318]
18.3.1.3 - 12.3.1.3 Wood Flour [Seite 318]
18.3.2 - 12.3.2 Characterizing the Shape of Elements [Seite 320]
18.3.2.1 - 12.3.2.1 Sieve Analysis [Seite 320]
18.3.2.2 - 12.3.2.2 Image Analysis [Seite 321]
18.3.3 - 12.3.3 Wood-Reinforced Polymer Composites - Effect of Element Morphology [Seite 323]
18.3.4 - 12.3.4 Conclusion [Seite 327]
18.4 - 12.4 Continuous Fiber Reinforced PLA Composite [Seite 329]
18.5 - References [Seite 333]
19 - 13 Rigid Closed-Cell PUR Foams Containing Polyols Derived from Renewable Resources: The Effect of Polymer Composition, Foam Density, and Organoclay Filler on Their Mechanical Properties [Seite 337]
19.1 - 13.1 Introduction [Seite 337]
19.2 - 13.2 Experimental [Seite 342]
19.2.1 - 13.2.1 Materials [Seite 342]
19.2.2 - 13.2.2 Preparation of PUR Foams and Monolithic Polymers [Seite 342]
19.2.3 - 13.2.3 Foam Morphology [Seite 343]
19.2.4 - 13.2.4 X-ray Diffraction Analysis [Seite 343]
19.2.5 - 13.2.5 Specimens and Tests [Seite 345]
19.3 - 13.3 Modeling the Mechanical Properties of Foams [Seite 345]
19.3.1 - 13.3.1 Continuum Models [Seite 346]
19.3.2 - 13.3.2 Strut-Based Models [Seite 348]
19.4 - 13.4 Results and Discussion [Seite 349]
19.4.1 - 13.4.1 Test Results of Neat Monolithic and Foamed PUR [Seite 349]
19.4.2 - 13.4.2 Modeling the Properties of Neat Foams [Seite 351]
19.4.3 - 13.4.3 The Effect of Clay Filler [Seite 354]
19.5 - 13.5 Conclusions [Seite 359]
19.6 - Acknowledgement [Seite 360]
19.7 - References [Seite 360]
20 - 14 Preparation and Application of the Composite from Alginate [Seite 365]
20.1 - 14.1 Introduction [Seite 365]
20.2 - 14. 2 Composites from Alginate and Natural Polymers [Seite 366]
20.2.1 - 14.2.1 Composites from Alginate and Chitosan [Seite 367]
20.2.2 - 14.2.2 Composites from Alginate and Collagen [Seite 368]
20.2.3 - 14.2.3 Composites from Alginate and Gelatin [Seite 370]
20.2.4 - 14.2.4 Composites from Alginate and Hyaluronic Acid [Seite 371]
20.2.5 - 14.2.5 Composites from Alginate and Cellulose [Seite 372]
20.2.6 - 14.2.6 Composites from Alginate and Heparin [Seite 374]
20.3 - 14.3 Composites from Alginate and Synthetic Polymers [Seite 375]
20.3.1 - 14.3.1 Composites from Alginate and Polyurethane [Seite 375]
20.3.2 - 14.3.2 Composites from Alginate and Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) [Seite 378]
20.3.3 - 14.3.3 Composites from Alginate and Poly(?-Glutamic Acid) [Seite 379]
20.4 - 14.4 Composites from Alginate and Biomacromolecules [Seite 380]
20.4.1 - 14.4.1 Composites from Alginate and Protein [Seite 380]
20.4.1.1 - 14.4.1.1 Composites from Alginate and Silk Fibroin [Seite 380]
20.4.1.2 - 14.4.1.2 Composites from Alginate and Silk Sericin [Seite 382]
20.4.1.3 - 14.4.1.3 Composites from Alginate and Soy Protein [Seite 382]
20.4.2 - 14.4.2 Composites from Alginate and Peptide [Seite 382]
20.5 - 14.5 Composites from Alginate and Inorganic Components [Seite 383]
20.5.1 - 14.5.1 Composites from Alginate and Hydroxyapatite [Seite 383]
20.5.2 - 14.5.2 Composites from Alginate and Silica [Seite 385]
20.5.3 - 14.5.3 Composites from Alginate and Silver Nanoparticles [Seite 385]
20.5.4 - 14.5.4 Composites from Alginate and Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles [Seite 387]
20.5.5 - 14.5.5 Composites from Alginate and Fe3 O4 [Seite 387]
20.6 - 14.6 Composites from Alginate and Carbon Materials [Seite 388]
20.6.1 - 14.6.1 Composites from Alginate and Carbon Nanotubes [Seite 388]
20.6.2 - 14.6.2 Composites from Alginate and Graphene Oxide [Seite 389]
20.7 - 14.7 Composites from Alginate and Clays [Seite 390]
20.8 - References [Seite 391]
21 - 15 Recent Developments in Biocomposites of Bombyx mori Silk Fibroin [Seite 401]
21.1 - 15.1 Introduction [Seite 401]
21.2 - 15.2 History of B. mori Silk [Seite 402]
21.3 - 15.3 Chemical Composition of B. mori Silk [Seite 403]
21.3.1 - 15.3.1 Fibroin [Seite 403]
21.3.2 - 15.3.2 Sericin [Seite 404]
21.3.3 - 15.3.3 Mineral Matters [Seite 405]
21.3.4 - 15.3.4 Fatty and Waxy Matters [Seite 405]
21.4 - 15.4 Properties of B. mori Silk [Seite 405]
21.4.1 - 15.4.1 Appearance [Seite 405]
21.4.2 - 15.4.2 Dimensions [Seite 405]
21.4.3 - 15.4.3 Specific Gravity [Seite 405]
21.4.4 - 15.4.4 Tensile Properties [Seite 407]
21.4.5 - 15.4.5 Hygroscopicity [Seite 407]
21.4.6 - 15.4.6 Thermal Properties [Seite 408]
21.4.7 - 15.4.7 UV Resistance [Seite 408]
21.4.8 - 15.4.8 Other Properties [Seite 408]
21.4.9 - 15.4.9 Chemical Properties of B. mori Silk [Seite 408]
21.4.9.1 - 15.4.9.1 Effect of Water [Seite 408]
21.4.9.2 - 15.4.9.2 Effect of Acids [Seite 409]
21.4.9.3 - 15.4.9.3 Effect of Alkalis [Seite 409]
21.4.9.4 - 15.4.9.4 Effect of Salts [Seite 409]
21.4.9.5 - 15.4.9.5 Effect of Oxidizing Agents [Seite 410]
21.5 - 15.5 Extraction of Silk Fibroin by Degumming Process [Seite 410]
21.6 - 15.6 Regenerated Fibroin Solution [Seite 412]
21.7 - 15.7 Silk Fibroin Hydrogels [Seite 413]
21.8 - 15.8 Methods of SF-Based Biocomposite Production [Seite 413]
21.8.1 - 15.8.1 Electrospinning [Seite 413]
21.8.2 - 15.8.2 Wet Spinning [Seite 414]
21.8.3 - 15.8.3 Irradiation Method [Seite 414]
21.8.4 - 15.8.4 Freeze Drying [Seite 415]
21.8.5 - 15.8.5 Solvent Casting/Particulate Leaching [Seite 415]
21.8.6 - 15.8.6 Gas Foaming [Seite 416]
21.8.7 - 15.8.7 Injection/Compression Molding [Seite 416]
21.9 - 15.9 Silk Fibroin-Based Biocomposites [Seite 416]
21.9.1 - 15.9.1 Inorganic Nanoparticles and SF [Seite 416]
21.9.2 - 15.9.2 Poly(ethylene glycol) and SF [Seite 417]
21.9.3 - 15.9.3 Poly(pyrrole) and SF [Seite 417]
21.9.4 - 15.9.4 Poly(vinyl alcohol) and SF [Seite 418]
21.9.5 - 15.9.5 Poly(lactic acid) and SF [Seite 418]
21.9.6 - 15.9.6 Poly(?-caprolactone) and SF [Seite 419]
21.9.7 - 15.9.7 Poly(?-caprolactone-co-D,L-lactide) and SF [Seite 419]
21.9.8 - 15.9.8 Poly(curethane) and SF [Seite 420]
21.9.9 - 15.9.9 Collagen and SF [Seite 420]
21.9.10 - 15.9.10 Gelatin and SF [Seite 421]
21.9.11 - 15.9.11 Cellulose and SF [Seite 421]
21.9.12 - 15.9.12 Chitin and SF [Seite 422]
21.9.13 - 15.9.13 Chitosan and SF [Seite 423]
21.9.14 - 15.9.14 Hydroxyapatite and SF [Seite 423]
21.10 - 15.10 Conclusion [Seite 424]
21.11 - References [Seite 424]
22 - 16 Design and Manufacturing of Natural Fiber/Synthetic Fiber Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites [Seite 435]
22.1 - 16.1 Introduction [Seite 435]
22.1.1 - 16.1.1 Prediction of Elastic Properties of Uni-Directional Laminate of Intra-ply Hybrid Composites [Seite 437]
22.1.2 - 16.1.2 Prediction of Elastic Properties of Inter-ply Hybrid Composites [Seite 439]
22.1.3 - 16.1.3 The Hybrid Effect [Seite 442]
22.2 - 16.2 Natural Fiber/Synthetic Fiber Hybrid Composites [Seite 445]
22.2.1 - 16.2.1 Natural Fibers, Synthetic Fibers and Polymer Matrices Used in Hybrid Composites and Their Applications [Seite 445]
22.2.2 - 16.2.2 Design [Seite 447]
22.2.2.1 - 16.2.2.1 Hybrid Composites with Glass Fibers [Seite 448]
22.2.2.2 - 16.2.2.2 Effects of Hybridization on Moisture Absorption [Seite 453]
22.2.2.3 - 16.2.2.3 Hybrid Composites with Non-Glass Fibers [Seite 455]
22.2.2.4 - 16.2.2.4 Biodegradable Matrices [Seite 457]
22.2.2.5 - 16.2.2.5 Industrial Applications [Seite 457]
22.2.3 - 16.2.3 Manufacturing [Seite 458]
22.3 - 16.3 Applications and Future Outlook [Seite 464]
22.4 - 16.4 Conclusions [Seite 464]
22.5 - References [Seite 465]
23 - 17 Natural Fiber Composite Strengthening Solution for Structural Beam Component for Enhanced Flexural Strength, as Alternatives to CFRP and GFRP Strengthening Techniques [Seite 473]
23.1 - 17.1 Introduction [Seite 473]
23.2 - 17.2 Materials [Seite 478]
23.2.1 - 17.2.1 Materials for FRP System [Seite 478]
23.2.2 - 17.2.2 Pre-treatment of Natural Fibers [Seite 478]
23.2.3 - 17.2.3 Alkali Treatment of Natural Fibers [Seite 479]
23.2.4 - 17.2.4 Bezylation Treatment of Natural Fibers [Seite 479]
23.2.5 - 17.2.5 Thermal Treatment of Natural Fibers [Seite 479]
23.3 - 17.3 Mechanical Characterization of Natural and Artificial FRP Composites [Seite 480]
23.3.1 - 17.3.1 Fabrication of FRP Composites [Seite 480]
23.3.2 - 17.3.2 Tensile and Flexural Characterization of FRP Composites [Seite 480]
23.4 - 17.4 RC Beam Strengthening Rechnique Using Natural and Artificial FRP Composite Systems [Seite 482]
23.5 - 17.5 Experimentation and Analysis of Results [Seite 485]
23.5.1 - 17.5.1 Analysis of Experimental Results [Seite 486]
23.6 - 17.6 Conclusions [Seite 492]
23.7 - References [Seite 494]
24 - 18 High Pressure Resin Transfer Moulding of Epoxy Resins From Renewable Sources [Seite 499]
24.1 - 18.1 Introduction [Seite 499]
24.2 - 18.2 Experimental [Seite 504]
24.2.1 - 18.2.1 Materials and Methods [Seite 504]
24.3 - 18.3 Results and Discussions [Seite 507]
24.4 - 18.4 Conclusions [Seite 511]
24.5 - Acknowledgements [Seite 511]
24.6 - References [Seite 511]
25 - 19 Cork-Based Structural Composites [Seite 513]
25.1 - 19.1 Introduction: Cork as a Sustainable Resource [Seite 513]
25.2 - 19.2 Cork as a Structural Material [Seite 514]
25.2.1 - 19.2.1 Cork General Properties [Seite 514]
25.2.2 - 19.2.2 Applications [Seite 515]
25.2.2.1 - 19.2.2.1 Cork Properties [Seite 515]
25.2.2.2 - 19.2.2.2 Cork Applications [Seite 515]
25.2.3 - 19.2.3 Mechanical Properties [Seite 517]
25.2.3.1 - 19.2.3.1 Physical Properties [Seite 517]
25.2.3.2 - 19.2.3.2 Comparison with Foam Cellular Materials [Seite 517]
25.2.3.3 - 19.2.3.3 Mechanical Properties [Seite 517]
25.3 - 19.3 Fibers and Matrices [Seite 518]
25.3.1 - 19.3.1 Fibers [Seite 518]
25.3.2 - 19.3.2 Matrices [Seite 518]
25.4 - 19.4 Cork Core Sandwich Concepts [Seite 518]
25.5 - 19.5 Damage Tolerant Structures with Cork [Seite 533]
25.6 - 19.6 Processing Techniques [Seite 535]
25.6.1 - 19.6.1 Cork Agglomerates [Seite 535]
25.6.2 - 19.6.2 Composite Systems [Seite 535]
25.7 - 19.7 Design Philosophy [Seite 535]
25.8 - 19.8 Conclusions and Challenges [Seite 536]
25.9 - References [Seite 536]
26 - 20 The Use of Wheat Straw as an Agricultural Waste in Composites for Semi-Structural Applications [Seite 539]
26.1 - 20.1 Introduction [Seite 539]
26.2 - 20.2 Application of Wheat Straw in Composites [Seite 542]
26.2.1 - 20.2.1 Composites with Thermosetting Matrices [Seite 543]
26.2.2 - 20.2.2 Composites with Thermoplastic Matrices [Seite 544]
26.2.3 - 20.2.3 Composites with Biodegradable Matrices [Seite 546]
26.3 - 20.3 Future Developments [Seite 548]
26.4 - 20.4 Conclusions [Seite 551]
26.5 - References [Seite 552]
27 - 21 Design and Manufacturing of Sustainable Composites [Seite 557]
27.1 - 21.1 Introduction to Ecological Composite Design [Seite 557]
27.1.1 - 21.1.1 Historical Background [Seite 557]
27.1.2 - 21.1.2 General Characteristics of Plastics [Seite 560]
27.1.3 - 21.1.3 Use of Ecological Matrices [Seite 561]
27.1.3.1 - 21.1.3.1 Classical Matrices [Seite 562]
27.1.3.2 - 21.1.3.2 Matrices from Renewable Resources (Bio-sourced) [Seite 562]
27.1.3.3 - 21.1.3.3 Biodegradable Matrices from Fossil Resources [Seite 565]
27.1.3.4 - 21.1.3.4 Biodegradable Matrices from Renewable Resources [Seite 568]
27.1.3.5 - 21.1.3.5 Oxo-degradable Matrices [Seite 568]
27.1.4 - 21.1.4 Global Production of Plastics [Seite 569]
27.1.5 - 21.1.5 Use of Ecological Fibers [Seite 570]
27.1.6 - 21.1.6 Use of Nanocomposites [Seite 578]
27.1.7 - 21.1.7 Overall Ecological Classification of Composites [Seite 580]
27.2 - 21.2 Design Principles for a Sustainable Composite [Seite 581]
27.2.1 - 21.2.1 Composite Applications and Specification of Required Mechanical Goals [Seite 581]
27.2.2 - 21.2.2 Analysis of Ecological and Pure Operational Performance [Seite 584]
27.2.2.1 - 21.2.2.1 Principles for Sustainable Biomaterials [Seite 584]
27.2.2.2 - 21.2.2.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) [Seite 586]
27.2.3 - 21.2.3 Predicting the Performance of an Eco-Composite: Relationships Between Microstructural and Mechanical Properties [Seite 587]
27.2.3.1 - 21.2.3.1 The Rule of Mixtures [Seite 587]
27.2.3.2 - 21.2.3.2 Shear-lag Model [Seite 588]
27.2.3.3 - 21.2.3.3 Modified Shear-lag Model [Seite 589]
27.2.3.4 - 21.2.3.4 Pan Model [Seite 590]
27.2.3.5 - 21.2.3.5 Christensen-Waals Model [Seite 590]
27.2.3.6 - 21.2.3.6 Coleman Model [Seite 592]
27.3 - 21.3 Summary of Available Composite Manufacturing Processes [Seite 593]
27.3.1 - 21.3.1 Injection Molding [Seite 593]
27.3.2 - 21.3.2 Extrusion [Seite 597]
27.3.3 - 21.3.3 Compression Molding [Seite 599]
27.3.4 - 21.3.4 Hot Pressing [Seite 600]
27.3.5 - 21.3.5 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) [Seite 601]
27.3.6 - 21.3.6 Industrial Compost Biodegradation Testing [Seite 603]
27.4 - 21.4 Techniques for Improving the Thermo-Mechanical Properties of Composites [Seite 604]
27.4.1 - 21.4.1 Useful Optimization Techniques for Eco-Composite Design [Seite 604]
27.4.1.1 - 21.4.1.1 Maleated Coupling Agents [Seite 604]
27.4.1.2 - 21.4.1.2 Permanganate Treatment [Seite 604]
27.4.1.3 - 21.4.1.3 Acetylation of Natural Fibers [Seite 605]
27.4.1.4 - 21.4.1.4 Alkaline treatment [Seite 606]
27.4.1.5 - 21.4.1.5 Acrylation and Acrylonitrile Grafting [Seite 607]
27.4.1.6 - 21.4.1.6 Silane Treatment [Seite 607]
27.4.1.7 - 21.4.1.7 Peroxide Treatment [Seite 608]
27.4.2 - 21.4.2 The Best Material Design for a Given Application [Seite 608]
27.4.3 - 21.4.3 Certification [Seite 610]
27.5 - Acronym List [Seite 613]
27.6 - References [Seite 614]
28 - Index [Seite 627]
29 - EULA [Seite 635]