Reinforcement and Behavior

List of ContributorsPreface1. Historical Introduction to the Problem of Reinforcement I. Philosophical Antecedents II. Early Evolutionism A. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) B. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) III. The Law of Effect A. Edward L. Thomdike (1874-1949) B. Criticisms of the Law of Effect IV. Noneffect Theories A. Ivan P. Pavlov (1849-1936) B. John B. Watson (1878-1958) C. Edwin R. Guthrie (1886-1959) D. Edward C. Tolman (1886-1959) V. The Empirical Law of Effect B. F. Skinner (1904- ) VI. Drive Reductionism A. Clark L. Hull (1884-1952) B. Neal E. Miller (1909- ) VII. Inadequacies of Drive Reductionism A. Difficulties Arising outside the Theory B. Difficulties within the Theory References2. Reinforcement-"The One Ring" I. Introduction II. Classification of Learning-Theory Concepts III. The Superfluous Nature of Glue IV. Alternative Experimental Strategies V. Summary References3. Reinforcement in Human Learning I. Introduction II. Information versus Effect III. Provisional Interpretation of the Functions of Reward IV. An Experimental Test of the Theory A. Method B. Results V. Interpretations of Standard Learning Experiments A. Thorndikian Experiments B. Operant Conditioning of Verbal Behavior C. Magnitude of Reward D. Delay of Reward VI. Summary References4. Reward and Reinforcement in Selective Learning: Considerations with Respect to a Mathematical Model of Learning I. Distinction between Reward and Reinforcement A. Definition of Reinforcement B. Definition of Reward II. A Markov Model for Simple Spatial Discrimination A. Assumptions of the Model B. The Parameters of the Model C. Boundary Conditions of the Model III. Experimental Data A. General Procedures B. Experiment I - Initial Test of Model C. Experiment II - Correction Procedure D. Experiment III - Magnitude of Reward IV. General Discussion and Conclusions A. The Two-Operator Linear Model ¿. Reward, Reinforcement, and Parameters of the All-or-None Model References5. On Some Boundary Conditions of Contrast I. Boundary Conditions II. Different Instrumental Events III. Different Reinforcers IV. Response Similarity V. Two Hypotheses and a Counterhypothesis VI. Preference VII. Three Mechanisms of Contrast VIII. Changes in the Preference Structure IX. Is Choice Subject to Contrast? X. Selective Recapitulation References6. Activity, Reactivity, and the Behavior-Directing Properties of Stimuli I. The Nature of Activity A. Observational Experiments B. Interrelations between Activity Measures II. The Effects of Hunger on Activity III. The Effects of Needs on Reactions to Stimuli A. The Effects of Hunger B. The Effects of Thirst C. Hunger and Thirst Compared D. Comparisons between Stimuli IV. Summary and Conclusions References7. The Reward-Value of Indifferent Stimulation I. Introduction A. The Nature of Reinforcement B. Need to Distinguish Reinforcement from Performance Effects C. Use of Indifferent Stimuli as Rewards D. Specificity versus Generality ¿. Photic Reinforcement II. Is Light Increment Really Rewarding? A. Experiment 1: No Light Change during Test Trials B. Experiment 2: Light Change during Test Trials III. Effects of Degree of Change and Consequent Level A. Experiment 1: Light Increment B. Experiment 2: Light Decrement C. Conclusions IV. Deprivation of Stimulus-Change, Novelty, and Arousal A. Experiment 1: Novelty and Stimulus Deprivation B.