INTRODUCTION 11
1. Subject and purpose of the study 11
2. State of Research 25
3. Methodology 33
3.1. Strong and weak images 41
3.2. Strength of an image versus strength of a word 44
3.3. The power of symbols 47
3.4. The object-user relationship 51
3.5. Elementary human needs and the ritual-medical sphere 57
4. The structure of the book 63
5. Acknowledgments 65
Notation on foreign terms and the list of abbreviations 66
CHAPTER 1
REPRESENTATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH ABUNDANCE, FERTILITY AND MOTHERHOOD IN THE VISUAL CULTURE OF INDIA 67
1. Introduction 67
2. Symbolism of fertility versus elements of the earliest images 72
2.1. Nature as a source of symbols 74
2.1.1. The lotus and lotus sprouts 76
2.1.2. Purnaghata - A vase of plenty 84
2.1.3. Kalpavriksha and Kalpalata 89
2.2. The female body 93
2.2.1. The power of the Goddess or the power of a woman? 95
2.2.2. Body parts 105
2.2.3. The woman and the tree 118
2.3. The male body 123
2.3.1. Yakshas with full bellies 127
2.3.2. Linga and ithyphallic figures 132
2.4. A child as an attribute 139
2.5. The so-called in labour posture 145
3. Lajja Gauri alias Abundance and Fertility Deity 151
4. Conclusion 160
CHAPTER 2
CULTURAL ASPECTS OF FERTILITY, PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH 165
1. Introduction 165
2. Pregnancy, childbirth and motherhood in ancient times 169
2.1. Rituals related to offspring 174
2.1.1. Beliefs and ceremonies regarding conception and development of the foetus 176
2.1.2. Birth 184
2.2. Female fertility and the role of the mother 188
2.3. Abortion 200
3. Activities promoting fertility and the protection of offspring 202
3.1. Threats, imagination of disease, and feasible countermeasures 205
3.1.1. Beliefs and the pacification of fear 218
3.1.2. Measures and material objects 221
4. Conclusion 227
CHAPTER 3
CHILD PROTECTION AND SPIRIT DEITIES AS DEPICTED IN THE MATHURA SCULPTURE 237
1. Introduction 237
1.1. Grahas and Matrikas 241
1.2. Function of the spirit-deities, role of representations 252
2. Ekanamsha 256
2.1. Representations of the deity in Mathura and their key elements 260
2.1.1. Arch of protection and a shrine niche 263
2.1.2. Strong company - the role of brothers flanking Ekanamsha 267
2.2. Cultural narratives 269
2.3. Character and function of the deity, its employment in protective activities 272
3. Hariti 276
3.1. Representations of the deity in Mathura and their key elements 278
3.1.1. Male companion (does not constitute Hariti) 290
3.1.2. Fence, stool, or table? 296
3.2. Cultural narratives 299
3.3. Character and function of the deity, its employment in protective activities 304
4. Matrikas 309
4.1. Representations of the deities in Mathura and their key elements 312
4.1.1. Individual images 315
4.1.2. Group panels - Matrikas without assistance 320
4.1.3. Group panels - Matrikas with assistance 324
4.1.4. The pair of abundance and fertility 333
4.1.5. How was the Matrika type created 336
4.2. Cultural narratives 342
4.3. Character and function of the deities, their employment in protective activities 351
5. Naigamesha 355
5.1. Representations of the deity in Mathura and their key elements 358
5.2. Cultural narratives 372
5.3. Character and function of the deity, its employment in protective activities 381
6. Shashthi 386
6.1. Representations of the deity in Mathura and their key elements 389
6.2. Cultural narratives 398
6.3. Character and function of the deity, its employment in protective activities 403
7. Skanda 409
7.1. Representations of the deity in Mathura and their key elements 412
7.2. Cultural narratives 418
7.3. Character and function of the deity, its employment in protective activities 427
8. Conclusion 431
CONCLUDING REMARKS 439
BIBLIOGRAPHY 455
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 481
APPENDICES 485
1. Vedic Hymns 485
1.1. Atharvaveda 8.6: A charm to exercise evil spirits who beset women 485
1.2 Atharvaveda. 3.23: A charm to remove a woman's sterility, and to assure the birth of boys 487
1.3 Atharvaveda 2.10 487
1.4 Rigveda 10.184 488
2. Excerpts from Mahabharata 489
2.1. The story of Yuvanashva 489
2.2. The stories of Matrikas 491
3. Fragments of Sushruta Samhita 495
3.1. General characteristics of nine Grahas and the example symptoms of the attack of Skanda and Skandapasmara 495
3.2. Counteracting the Skanda-Graha attack 496
