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PRABHAT KUMAR SRIVASTAVA is an Assistant Professor of Botany in K. S. Saket Post Graduate College, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India, an affiliated college of Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India.
VIJAY PRATAP SINGH is an Assistant Professor of Botany in C. M. P. Degree College, a constituent college of University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.
ANITA SINGH is an Assistant Professor of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India.
DURGESH KUMAR TRIPATHI is an Assistant Professor in Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.
SAMIKSHA SINGH is a D. Phil. scholar in the Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.
SHEO MOHAN PRASAD is a Professor in the Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.
DEVENDRA KUMAR CHAUHAN is Professor and Head, Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India.
List of Contributors xiii
Preface xix
1 Development of Pesticide Resistance in Pests: A Key Challenge to the Crop Protection and Environmental Safety 1Subramani Pandian and Manikandan Ramesh
1.1 Resistance: The Introduction 1
1.2 Pesticide Resistance: A Global Analysis 2
1.3 Molecular Genetics and Biochemical Basis of Pesticide Resistance 2
1.4 Changes in Pesticide Binding Sites 2
1.5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors 3
1.6 GABA Receptors and Other Ligand-gated Chloride Channels 4
1.7 Voltage-Dependent Sodium Channels 4
1.8 Insecticidal Microbial Toxins 5
1.9 Biotransformation 6
1.10 Acetylcholinesterase 6
1.11 Esterases 7
1.12 Carboxylesterases (B-Esterases) 7
1.13 Cytochrome P450 Monooxygenases 8
1.14 Glutathione S-Transferases 8
1.15 Other Resistance Mechanisms 9
References 9
2 Fungicide Toxicity to Legumes and Its Microbial Remediation: A Current Perspective 15Mohammad Shahid, Mohammad Saghir Khan and Almas Zaidi
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Nutritional Importance of Legumes 16
2.3 Fungal Diseases of Legumes: A General Perspective 17
2.4 Types of Fungicides and Their Mode of Action 17
2.5 Fungicides Uptake, Metabolism and Their Persistence 20
2.6 Phytotoxicity of Fungicides to Legumes: A General Perspective 21
2.7 Impact of Fungicides on Plant Growth 21
2.8 Effect on Symbiosis and Yield 23
2.9 Effect on Chlorophyll Content and Photosynthetic Rates 24
2.10 Fungicide Toxicity to Legume Rhizobium Symbiosis 25
2.10.1 Effect on Nodulation 25
2.10.2 Effect of Fungicides on Nitrogenase and Leghaemoglobin 25
2.10.3 Effect on Dry Biomass 26
2.11 Microbial Remediation of Fungicide Toxicity 26
2.12 Concluding Remarks 28
References 28
3 Pesticide Metabolism in Plants, Insects, Soil Microbes and Fishes: An Overview 35Anket Sharma, Vinod Kumar, Sukhmeen Kaur Kohli, Ravdeep Kaur, Tajinder Kaur, Saroj Arora, Ashwani Kumar Thukral and Renu Bhardwaj
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Metabolism of Pesticides in Plants 36
3.3 Metabolism of Pesticides in Insects 39
3.4 Metabolism of Pesticides in Soil Microbes 41
3.5 Metabolism of Pesticides in Fishes 43
3.6 Conclusion 45
References 45
4 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides and Its Impact on Biological Systems 55Shubhra Gupta and Kapil Gupta
4.1 Introduction 55
4.2 Dispersion of Pesticides into the Environment 56
4.3 Behavior of Pesticides in Soil 57
4.4 Bioaccumulation and Biomagnifications of Pesticide 58
4.4.1 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Plants 59
4.4.2 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Animals 60
4.4.3 Bioaccumulation of Pesticides in Human and Toxicity 61
4.5 Regulatory Activity 62
4.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 62
References 63
5 Impact of Pesticide Exposure and Associated Health Effects 69Jyoti Upadhayay, Mahendra Rana, Vijay Juyal, Satpal Singh Bisht and Rohit Joshi
5.1 Introduction 69
5.2 History of Evolution of Pesticides 70
5.3 Pesticides Regulations 70
5.4 Impact on Environment 71
5.5 Impact on Human Health 72
5.5.1 Pesticide Exposure 72
5.5.1.1 Pesticide Exposure Routes in Humans 72
5.5.1.2 Acute Toxicity of Pesticides 72
5.5.1.3 Neurobehavioral Effects After Acute Toxicity 74
5.5.1.4 Chronic Toxicity of Pesticides 74
5.5.1.5 Disruption of Endocrine System 74
5.5.2 Carcinogenicity 76
5.5.2.1 Neurological and Neuro-developmental Effects 78
5.5.2.2 Parkinson's Disease (PD) 78
5.5.2.3 Immunologic Effects 78
5.5.2.4 Reproductive Effects 78
5.5.2.5 Estrogenic Effects of Pesticides on Human Estrogen-Sensitive Cells 79
5.5.2.6 Diethyl Stilbestrol (DES) Syndrome (Model for Estrogenic Chemicals Exposure in the Environment) 79
5.5.2.7 Developmental Effects 79
5.6 Other Health Problems 80
5.6.1 Eye Problems 80
5.6.2 Respiratory Problems 80
5.6.3 Determination of Pollution Potential of Pesticides 80
5.7 Conclusion 81
References 82
6 Microbiome as Sensitive Markers for Risk Assessment of Pesticides 89Upma Singh, Varsha Ashok Walvekar and Shilpi Sharma
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 The Rhizosphere 90
6.3 Effect of Chemical Pesticides on Soil Microbial Communities 91
6.4 Effect of Pesticides on Plant Growth Parameters as a Result of Impact on Microbiome 95
6.5 Impact of Safer Alternatives, Biological Pesticides 96
6.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 102
Acknowledgment 102
References 102
7 Arms Race between Insecticide and Insecticide Resistance and Evolution of Insect Management Strategies 109Pritam Chattopadhyay and Goutam Banerjee
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 Different Types of Insecticide 110
7.3 Different Types of Insecticide Resistance 116
7.3.1 Cross Insecticide Resistance 116
7.3.2 Multiple Insecticide Resistance 116
7.3.3 Stable Insecticide Resistance 116
7.3.4 Unstable Insecticide Resistance 116
7.4 Reasons for Insecticide Resistance 117
7.5 Mechanisms of Insecticide Resistance 118
7.5.1 Alterations in Insecticide Detoxification Capacity 118
7.5.2 Alteration of Toxin-Receptor Interactions 118
7.5.3 Alterations in Detoxification Metabolism 119
7.5.4 Alterations in Insecticide Penetration 119
7.5.5 Other Potential Mechanisms of Resistance 119
7.5.5.1 Induced Resistance 119
7.5.5.2 Behavioral Resistance 119
7.6 Factors Influencing Insecticide Resistance 119
7.6.1 Biological and Ecological Factors 120
7.6.2 Genetic Factors 121
7.6.3 Operational Factors 122
7.7 Managing Pesticide Resistance 122
7.7.1 Insecticide Resistance Database 122
7.7.2 Chemical Use Strategies for Resistance Management 122
7.7.2.1 Management by Moderation 122
7.7.2.2 Management by Multiple Attacks 123
7.7.2.3 Management by Saturation 123
7.7.3 Reactive Resistance Management 123
7.7.4 Proactive Resistance Management 123
7.7.5 Resistance Management as a Component of IPM 123
7.8 Technical Strategies to Combat Insecticide Resistance 123
7.8.1 Searching and Characterizing New and Novel Insecticide 123
7.8.2 Amending Biocontrol 124
7.8.3 Exploring Novel Insect Pest Resistant Varieties 124
7.8.3.1 Plant Immunity and Insect Resistance 124
7.8.4 Combining Known Insecticides in Appropriate Proportion 124
7.8.5 Modifying Known Insecticidal Toxins 125
7.9 Future Perspective 125
Acknowledgments 125
Conflict of Interest 125
References 126
8 Agricultural Herbicides and Fungi in Soil Exposed to Herbicides 131Barberis Carla, Magnoli Carina, Carranza Cecilia, Benito Nicolás and Aluffi Melisa
8.1 Introduction 131
8.2 General Aspects of Main Herbicides 132
8.2.1 Clodinafop Propargyl 132
8.2.2 Toxicity of CF 132
8.2.3 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid 133
8.2.3.1 Toxicity of 2,4-D 133
8.2.4 Glyphosate 133
8.2.4.1 Toxicity of GP 133
8.2.5 Atrazine 134
8.2.5.1 Toxicity of Atrazine 134
8.2.6 Metolachlor 135
8.2.6.1 Toxicity of Metolachlor 135
8.2.7 Diuron 136
8.2.7.1 Toxicity of Diuron 136
8.2.8 Imazapyr 137
8.2.8.1 Toxicity of Imazapyr 137
8.2.9 Pendimethalin 137
8.2.9.1 Toxicity of Pendimethalin 138
8.2.10 Paraquat 138
8.2.10.1 Toxicity of PQ 138
8.3 Biodegradation of Most-Used Herbicides by Fungi 138
8.3.1 2,4-D Degradation 139
8.3.2 Atrazine Degradation 140
8.3.3 Metolachlor Degradation 140
8.4 Effect of Herbicides on Fungi 141
8.4.1 Glyphosate 141
8.4.2 2,4-Dichlorophenoxy Acetic Acid and Others Herbicides 142
8.5 Effect of Herbicides on Toxicogenic Fungi and Mycotoxins Production 144
8.6 Effect of Herbicides on Phytopathogen Fungi 145
8.7 Conclusions 146
References 146
9 Pesticides Usage, Uptake and Mode of Action in Plants with Special Emphasis on Photosynthetic Characteristics 159Nivedita Chaudhary, Krishna Kumar Choudhary, S.B. Agarwal and Madhoolika Agrawal
9.1 Introduction 159
9.1.1 Usage and Requirement of Pesticides on Plants 160
9.1.1.1 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 161
9.1.1.2 Cultural Control 161
9.1.1.3 Mechanical Control 162
9.1.1.4 Biological Control 162
9.1.1.5 Genetic Control 162
9.1.1.6 Chemical Control 162
9.1.2 Generalized Mode of Action and Uptake of Pesticides in Plants 162
9.2 Effects of Pesticides on the Physiological Characteristics of the Plants 166
9.2.1 Chlorophyll Fluorescence Affected by the Pesticides 168
9.2.2 Pesticides Affect Chlorophyll Content in the Plants 171
9.2.3 Effect of Pesticides on Photosynthesis 171
9.2.4 Effects of Pesticides on Stomatal Conductance, Transpiration and Dark Respiration 173
9.3 Beneficial and Detrimental Effects of Pesticides 173
9.3.1 Beneficial Effects 174
9.3.2 Detrimental Effects 174
9.4 Conclusions 175
Acknowledgments 175
References 175
10 Botanical Pesticides for Eco-Friendly Pest Management: Drawbacks and Limitations 181Christos A. Damalas and Spyridon D. Koutroubas
10.1 Introduction 181
10.2 Overview of Botanical Pesticides 182
10.3 Drawbacks and Limitations 184
10.4 Quality of Raw Material 184
10.5 Product Standardization 185
10.6 Rapid Degradation 186
10.7 Short Shelf-Life 186
10.8 Raw Material Availability 187
10.9 Safety of Botanical Pesticides 187
10.10 Regulatory Approval 188
10.11 Future Perspectives 188
10.12 Conclusions 189
References 190
11 Pesticide Interactions with Foodstuffs: Case Study of Apple 195Géraldine Giacinti, Christine Raynaud and Valérie Simon
11.1 Introduction 195
11.2 Apple Biology 196
11.2.1 General Botanical Presentation 196
11.2.2 Plant Structural Biochemistry 196
11.2.3 Chemical Composition of the Tissues of the Fruit of Malus domestica Borkh 197
11.3 Pesticide Inputs 198
11.3.1 Chemical Composition of Pesticides 199
11.3.1.1 Active Molecules 199
11.3.1.2 Surfactants 199
11.3.1.3 Other Additives 199
11.3.2 Identification of Pesticides Currently Used in French Apple Orchards 200
11.4 Pesticide-Fruit Interactions 200
11.4.1 Epidermis Structure and Function in Apple 201
11.4.2 Two Diffusion Pathways in the Cuticle 202
11.4.3 Study of the Interactions Between Pesticides and Cuticle 204
11.4.3.1 Membrane Transport Mechanism for the Active Molecules of Pesticides 205
11.4.3.2 Cuticular Membrane Permeability 205
11.4.3.3 Identification of the Chemical Compounds of the Cuticle Interacting with Pesticides 206
11.4.4 Identification of Factors Likely to Influence Pesticide-Cuticule Interactions 209
11.4.4.1 Pesticide Formulations 209
11.4.4.2 Environmental Conditions 211
11.4.4.3 Pesticide Molecule Degradation in Plants: New Interactions 212
11.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects 213
References 214
12 Multiresidue Pesticide Analysis in Cabbage and Cauliflower Using Gas Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) 221Mahadev C. Khetagoudar, Mahadev B. Chetti, A. V. Raghu and Dinesh C. Bilehal
12.1 Introduction 221
12.2 Experimental Details 222
12.2.1 Apparatus 222
12.2.2 Reagents 223
12.2.3 Preparation of Reference Standard Solutions 223
12.2.4 Preparation of Sample 224
12.2.5 GC- MS/MS Analysis 224
12.2.6 Validation Study 224
12.3 Results and Discussion 224
12.3.1 Optimization of GC Oven Programming 224
12.3.2 Optimization of MS/MS 226
12.3.3 QuEChERS Procedure for Extraction 226
12.3.4 Recovery Experiments of Spiked Samples 227
12.3.5 Method Performance 227
12.4 Applicability of the Developed Method 229
12.4.1 Sampling 229
12.5 Conclusion 230
Acknowledgments 230
References 230
13 Pesticide Toxicity Amelioration in Plants by Plant Hormones 233Palak Bakshi, Shagun Bali, Parminder Kaur, Anjali Khajuria, Kanika Khanna, Bilal Ahmad Mir, Puja Ohri and Renu Bhardwaj
13.1 Introduction 233
13.2 Physico-Chemical Methods 237
13.2.1 Chemical Detoxification and Disposal Methods 237
13.2.2 Physical Detoxification and Disposal Methods 238
13.3 Enzymatic Methods 239
13.3.1 Oxidoreductases 240
13.3.2 Hydrolases 240
13.3.3 Lyases 241
13.4 Plant Growth Regulators 241
13.4.1 Auxins 241
13.4.2 Abscisic Acid 243
13.4.3 Brassinosteroids 244
13.4.4 Salicylic Acid 246
13.4.5 Jasmonic Acid 247
13.4.6 Polyphenols 248
13.5 Conclusion 249
References 249
14 Transgenic Strategies to Develop Resistant Plant Against the Pathogen and Pest 259Neeraj Kumar Dubey, Kapil Gupta, Pawan Yadav, Jogeswar Panigrahi and Aditya Kumar Gupta
14.1 Introduction 259
14.2 Techniques Used for Transgenic Plant Development 260
14.3 Transgenic Plants Developed Against Pathogens and Pests 263
14.3.1 Virus 263
14.3.2 Bacteria 266
14.3.3 Fungi 266
14.3.4 Nematodes 270
14.3.5 Insects 272
14.3.6 Parasitic Weeds 276
14.4 Regulation of Insecticidal Gene Expression 278
14.5 Advantages 279
14.6 Disadvantages 279
14.7 Future Strategies 279
Acknowledgments 280
References 280
Index 291
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