Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright [Seite 6]
4 - Dedication [Seite 7]
5 - Content [Seite 9]
6 - Preface to the First Edition [Seite 25]
7 - Preface to the Third Edition [Seite 27]
8 - Part I: The Atmosphere and Its Constituents [Seite 29]
8.1 - Chapter 1: The Atmosphere [Seite 31]
8.1.1 - 1.1 History and Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere [Seite 31]
8.1.2 - 1.2 Climate [Seite 33]
8.1.3 - 1.3 Layers of the Atmosphere [Seite 33]
8.1.4 - 1.4 Pressure in the Atmosphere [Seite 35]
8.1.4.1 - 1.4.1 Units of Pressure [Seite 35]
8.1.4.2 - 1.4.2 Variation of Pressure with Height in the Atmosphere [Seite 35]
8.1.5 - 1.5 Temperature in the Atmosphere [Seite 38]
8.1.6 - 1.6 Expressing the Amount of a Substance in the Atmosphere [Seite 38]
8.1.7 - 1.7 Airborne Particles [Seite 42]
8.1.8 - 1.8 Spatial and Temporal Scales of Atmospheric Processes [Seite 42]
8.1.9 - Problems [Seite 44]
8.1.10 - References [Seite 45]
8.2 - Chapter 2: Atmospheric Trace Constituents [Seite 46]
8.2.1 - 2.1 Atmospheric Lifetime [Seite 47]
8.2.2 - 2.2 Sulfur-Containing Compounds [Seite 51]
8.2.2.1 - 2.2.1 Dimethyl Sulfide (CH3SCH3) [Seite 54]
8.2.2.2 - 2.2.2 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS) [Seite 54]
8.2.2.3 - 2.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) [Seite 55]
8.2.3 - 2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds [Seite 55]
8.2.3.1 - 2.3.1 Nitrous Oxide (N2O) [Seite 56]
8.2.3.2 - 2.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx = NO + NO2) [Seite 57]
8.2.3.3 - 2.3.3 Reactive Odd Nitrogen (NOy) [Seite 58]
8.2.3.4 - 2.3.4 Ammonia (NH3) [Seite 59]
8.2.3.5 - 2.3.5 Amines [Seite 60]
8.2.4 - 2.4 Carbon-Containing Compounds [Seite 60]
8.2.4.1 - 2.4.1 Classification of Hydrocarbons [Seite 60]
8.2.4.2 - 2.4.2 Methane [Seite 62]
8.2.4.3 - 2.4.3 Volatile Organic Compounds [Seite 64]
8.2.4.4 - 2.4.4 Biogenic Hydrocarbons [Seite 64]
8.2.4.5 - 2.4.5 Carbon Monoxide [Seite 67]
8.2.4.6 - 2.4.6 Carbon Dioxide [Seite 68]
8.2.5 - 2.5 Halogen-Containing Compounds [Seite 68]
8.2.5.1 - 2.5.1 Methyl Chloride (CH3Cl) [Seite 70]
8.2.5.2 - 2.5.2 Methyl Bromide (CH3Br) [Seite 70]
8.2.6 - 2.6 Atmospheric Ozone [Seite 72]
8.2.7 - 2.7 Particulate Matter (Aerosols) [Seite 75]
8.2.7.1 - 2.7.1 Stratospheric Aerosol [Seite 76]
8.2.7.2 - 2.7.2 Chemical Components of Tropospheric Aerosol [Seite 76]
8.2.7.3 - 2.7.3 Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) [Seite 77]
8.2.7.4 - 2.7.4 Sizes of Atmospheric Particles [Seite 77]
8.2.7.5 - 2.7.5 Carbonaceous Particles [Seite 79]
8.2.7.6 - 2.7.6 Mineral Dust [Seite 81]
8.2.7.7 - 2.7.7 Biomass Burning [Seite 81]
8.2.7.8 - 2.7.8 Summary of Atmospheric Particulate Matter [Seite 82]
8.2.8 - 2.8 Mercury [Seite 83]
8.2.9 - 2.9 Emission Inventories [Seite 83]
8.2.10 - Appendix 2.1 Us Air Pollution Legislation [Seite 84]
8.2.11 - Appendix 2.2 Hazardous Air Pollutants (Air Toxics) [Seite 85]
8.2.12 - Problems [Seite 87]
8.2.13 - References [Seite 89]
9 - Part II: Atmospheric Chemistry [Seite 95]
9.1 - Chapter 3: Chemical Kinetics [Seite 97]
9.1.1 - 3.1 Order of Reaction [Seite 97]
9.1.2 - 3.2 Theories of Chemical Kinetics [Seite 99]
9.1.2.1 - 3.2.1 Collision Theory [Seite 99]
9.1.2.2 - 3.2.2 Transition State Theory [Seite 102]
9.1.2.3 - 3.2.3 Potential Energy Surface for a Bimolecular Reaction [Seite 103]
9.1.3 - 3.3 The Pseudo-Steady-State Approximation [Seite 104]
9.1.4 - 3.4 Reactions of Excited Species [Seite 105]
9.1.5 - 3.5 Termolecular Reactions [Seite 106]
9.1.6 - 3.6 Chemical Families [Seite 109]
9.1.7 - 3.7 Gas-Surface Reactions [Seite 111]
9.1.8 - Problems [Seite 112]
9.1.9 - References [Seite 115]
9.2 - Chapter 4: Atmospheric Radiation and Photochemistry [Seite 116]
9.2.1 - 4.1 Radiation [Seite 116]
9.2.2 - 4.2 Radiative Flux in the Atmosphere [Seite 119]
9.2.3 - 4.3 Beer-Lambert Law and Optical Depth [Seite 121]
9.2.4 - 4.4 Actinic Flux [Seite 123]
9.2.5 - 4.5 Atmospheric Photochemistry [Seite 125]
9.2.6 - 4.6 Absorption of Radiation By Atmospheric Gases [Seite 128]
9.2.7 - 4.7 Absorption By O2 and O3 [Seite 133]
9.2.8 - 4.8 Photolysis Rate As a Function of Altitude [Seite 137]
9.2.9 - 4.9 Photodissociation of O3 to Produce O and O(D) [Seite 140]
9.2.10 - 4.10 Photodissociation of No2 [Seite 142]
9.2.11 - Problems [Seite 145]
9.2.12 - References [Seite 145]
9.3 - Chapter 5: Chemistry of the Stratosphere [Seite 147]
9.3.1 - 5.1 Chapman Mechanism [Seite 150]
9.3.2 - 5.2 Nitrogen Oxide Cycles [Seite 157]
9.3.2.1 - 5.2.1 Stratospheric Source of NOx from N2O [Seite 157]
9.3.2.2 - 5.2.2 NOx Cycles [Seite 159]
9.3.3 - 5.3 Hox Cycles [Seite 162]
9.3.4 - 5.4 Halogen Cycles [Seite 167]
9.3.4.1 - 5.4.1 Chlorine Cycles [Seite 168]
9.3.4.2 - 5.4.2 Bromine Cycles [Seite 171]
9.3.5 - 5.5 Reservoir Species and Coupling of the Cycles [Seite 172]
9.3.6 - 5.6 Ozone Hole [Seite 174]
9.3.6.1 - 5.6.1 Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs) [Seite 177]
9.3.6.2 - 5.6.2 PSCs and the Ozone Hole [Seite 178]
9.3.6.3 - 5.6.3 Arctic Ozone Hole [Seite 181]
9.3.7 - 5.7 Heterogeneous (Nonpolar) Stratospheric Chemistry [Seite 183]
9.3.7.1 - 5.7.1 The Stratospheric Aerosol Layer [Seite 183]
9.3.7.2 - 5.7.2 Heterogeneous Hydrolysis of N2O5 [Seite 183]
9.3.7.3 - 5.7.3 Effect of Volcanoes on Stratospheric Ozone [Seite 188]
9.3.8 - 5.8 Summary of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion [Seite 190]
9.3.9 - 5.9 Transport and Mixing in the Stratosphere [Seite 193]
9.3.10 - 5.10 Ozone Depletion Potential [Seite 195]
9.3.11 - Problems [Seite 196]
9.3.12 - References [Seite 201]
9.4 - Chapter 6: Chemistry of the Troposphere [Seite 203]
9.4.1 - 6.1 Production of Hydroxyl Radicals in the Troposphere [Seite 204]
9.4.2 - 6.2 Basic Photochemical Cycle of No2, No, and O3 [Seite 207]
9.4.3 - 6.3 Atmospheric Chemistry of Carbon Monoxide [Seite 209]
9.4.3.1 - 6.3.1 Low-NOx Limit [Seite 211]
9.4.3.2 - 6.3.2 High-NOx Limit [Seite 212]
9.4.3.3 - 6.3.3 Ozone Production Efficiency [Seite 212]
9.4.3.4 - 6.3.4 Theoretical Maximum Yield of Ozone from CO Oxidation [Seite 216]
9.4.4 - 6.4 Atmospheric Chemistry of Methane [Seite 216]
9.4.5 - 6.5 The Nox and Noy Families [Seite 220]
9.4.5.1 - 6.5.1 Daytime Behavior [Seite 220]
9.4.5.2 - 6.5.2 Nighttime Behavior [Seite 221]
9.4.6 - 6.6 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere and Role of Nox [Seite 223]
9.4.6.1 - 6.6.1 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere [Seite 223]
9.4.6.2 - 6.6.2 Role of NOx [Seite 223]
9.4.6.3 - 6.6.3 Global Hydroxyl Radical Budget [Seite 225]
9.4.7 - 6.7 Tropospheric Reservoir Molecules [Seite 231]
9.4.7.1 - 6.7.1 H2O2, CH3OOH, and Hydroperoxides [Seite 231]
9.4.7.2 - 6.7.2 Nitrous Acid (HONO) [Seite 232]
9.4.7.3 - 6.7.3 Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs) [Seite 232]
9.4.8 - 6.8 Relative Roles of Voc and Nox in Ozone Formation [Seite 236]
9.4.8.1 - 6.8.1 Importance of the VOC/NOx Ratio [Seite 236]
9.4.8.2 - 6.8.2 Ozone Isopleth Plot [Seite 237]
9.4.8.3 - 6.8.3 Weekend Ozone Effect [Seite 239]
9.4.9 - 6.9 Simplified Organic/Nox Chemistry [Seite 240]
9.4.10 - 6.10 Chemistry of Nonmethane Organic Compounds in the Troposphere [Seite 242]
9.4.10.1 - 6.10.1 Alkanes [Seite 243]
9.4.10.2 - 6.10.2 Alkenes [Seite 250]
9.4.10.2.1 - 6.10.2.1 OH Reaction [Seite 251]
9.4.10.2.2 - 6.10.2.2 NO3 Reaction [Seite 253]
9.4.10.2.3 - 6.10.2.3 Ozone Reaction [Seite 255]
9.4.10.3 - 6.10.3 Aromatics [Seite 256]
9.4.10.4 - 6.10.4 Aldehydes [Seite 258]
9.4.10.5 - 6.10.5 Ketones [Seite 258]
9.4.10.6 - 6.10.6 Ethers [Seite 259]
9.4.10.7 - 6.10.7 Alcohols [Seite 259]
9.4.10.8 - 6.10.8 Tropospheric Lifetimes of Organic Compounds [Seite 260]
9.4.11 - 6.11 Atmospheric Chemistry of Biogenic Hydrocarbons [Seite 261]
9.4.11.1 - 6.11.1 Atmospheric Chemistry of Isoprene [Seite 261]
9.4.11.1.1 - 6.11.1.1 Isoprene + OH [Seite 262]
9.4.11.1.2 - 6.11.1.2 Isoprene + O3 [Seite 266]
9.4.11.1.3 - 6.11.1.3 Isoprene + NO3 [Seite 266]
9.4.11.1.4 - 6.11.1.4 Chemistry of Isoprene Oxidation Products: Methacrolein and Methyl Vinyl Ketone [Seite 267]
9.4.11.2 - 6.11.2 Monoterpenes (?-Pinene) [Seite 269]
9.4.11.2.1 - 6.11.2.1 ?-Pinene + O3 [Seite 270]
9.4.11.2.2 - 6.11.2.2 ?-Pinene + OH [Seite 270]
9.4.12 - 6.12 Atmospheric Chemistry of Reduced Nitrogen Compounds [Seite 272]
9.4.12.1 - 6.12.1 Amines [Seite 273]
9.4.12.2 - 6.12.2 Nitriles [Seite 274]
9.4.12.3 - 6.12.3 Nitrites [Seite 274]
9.4.13 - 6.13 Atmospheric Chemistry (Gas Phase) of Sulfur Compounds [Seite 274]
9.4.13.1 - 6.13.1 Sulfur Oxides [Seite 274]
9.4.13.2 - 6.13.2 Reduced Sulfur Compounds (Dimethyl Sulfide) [Seite 275]
9.4.14 - 6.14 Tropospheric Chemistry of Halogen Compounds [Seite 277]
9.4.14.1 - 6.14.1 Chemical Cycles of Halogen Species [Seite 277]
9.4.14.2 - 6.14.2 Tropospheric Chemistry of CFC Replacements: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) [Seite 279]
9.4.15 - 6.15 Atmospheric Chemistry of Mercury [Seite 281]
9.4.16 - Appendix 6 Organic Functional Groups [Seite 282]
9.4.17 - Problems [Seite 284]
9.4.18 - References [Seite 287]
9.5 - Chapter 7: Chemistry of the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase [Seite 293]
9.5.1 - 7.1 Liquid Water in the Atmosphere [Seite 293]
9.5.2 - 7.2 Absorption Equilibria and Henry's Law [Seite 296]
9.5.3 - 7.3 Aqueous-Phase Chemical Equilibria [Seite 299]
9.5.3.1 - 7.3.1 Water [Seite 299]
9.5.3.2 - 7.3.2 Carbon Dioxide-Water Equilibrium [Seite 300]
9.5.3.3 - 7.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide-Water Equilibrium [Seite 302]
9.5.3.4 - 7.3.4 Ammonia-Water Equilibrium [Seite 306]
9.5.3.5 - 7.3.5 Nitric Acid-Water Equilibrium [Seite 308]
9.5.3.6 - 7.3.6 Equilibria of Other Important Atmospheric Gases [Seite 309]
9.5.3.6.1 - 7.3.6.1 Hydrogen Peroxide [Seite 309]
9.5.3.6.2 - 7.3.6.2 Ozone [Seite 310]
9.5.3.6.3 - 7.3.6.3 Oxides of Nitrogen [Seite 310]
9.5.3.6.4 - 7.3.6.4 Formaldehyde [Seite 310]
9.5.3.6.5 - 7.3.6.5 Formic and Other Atmospheric Acids [Seite 311]
9.5.3.6.6 - 7.3.6.6 OH and HO2 Radicals [Seite 312]
9.5.4 - 7.4 Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates [Seite 312]
9.5.5 - 7.5 S(IV)-S(VI) Transformation and Sulfur Chemistry [Seite 314]
9.5.5.1 - 7.5.1 Oxidation of S(IV) by Dissolved O3 [Seite 314]
9.5.5.2 - 7.5.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Hydrogen Peroxide [Seite 317]
9.5.5.3 - 7.5.3 Oxidation of S(IV) by Organic Peroxides [Seite 318]
9.5.5.4 - 7.5.4 Uncatalyzed Oxidation of S(IV) by O2 [Seite 319]
9.5.5.5 - 7.5.5 Oxidation of S(IV) by O2 Catalyzed by Iron and Manganese [Seite 319]
9.5.5.5.1 - 7.5.5.1 Iron Catalysis [Seite 319]
9.5.5.5.2 - 7.5.5.2 Manganese Catalysis [Seite 321]
9.5.5.5.3 - 7.5.5.3 Iron/Manganese Synergism [Seite 321]
9.5.5.6 - 7.5.6 Comparison of Aqueous-Phase S(IV) Oxidation Paths [Seite 321]
9.5.6 - 7.6 Dynamic Behavior of Solutions With Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions [Seite 323]
9.5.6.1 - 7.6.1 Closed System [Seite 324]
9.5.6.2 - 7.6.2 Calculation of Concentration Changes in a Droplet with Aqueous-Phase Reactions [Seite 326]
9.5.7 - Appendix 7.1 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Data [Seite 329]
9.5.8 - Appendix 7.2 Additional Aqueous-Phase Sulfur Chemistry [Seite 333]
9.5.8.1 - 7A.1 S(IV) Oxidation by the OH Radical [Seite 333]
9.5.8.2 - 7A.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Oxides of Nitrogen [Seite 336]
9.5.8.3 - 7A.3 Reaction of Dissolved SO2 with HCHO [Seite 337]
9.5.9 - Appendix 7.3 Aqueous-Phase Nitrite and Nitrate Chemistry [Seite 339]
9.5.9.1 - 7A.4 NOx Oxidation [Seite 339]
9.5.9.2 - 7A.5 Nitrogen Radicals [Seite 339]
9.5.10 - Appendix 7.4 Aqueous-Phase Organic Chemistry [Seite 340]
9.5.11 - Appendix 7.5 Oxygen and Hydrogen Chemistry [Seite 341]
9.5.12 - Problems [Seite 342]
9.5.13 - References [Seite 345]
10 - Part III: Aerosols [Seite 351]
10.1 - Chapter 8: Properties of the Atmospheric Aerosol [Seite 353]
10.1.1 - 8.1 The Size Distribution Function [Seite 353]
10.1.1.1 - 8.1.1 The Number Distribution nN(Dp) [Seite 356]
10.1.1.2 - 8.1.2 The Surface Area, Volume, and Mass Distributions [Seite 358]
10.1.1.3 - 8.1.3 Distributions Based on ln Dp and log Dp [Seite 359]
10.1.1.4 - 8.1.4 Relating Size Distributions Based on Different Independent Variables [Seite 361]
10.1.1.5 - 8.1.5 Properties of Size Distributions [Seite 362]
10.1.1.6 - 8.1.6 Definition of the Lognormal Distribution [Seite 363]
10.1.1.7 - 8.1.7 Plotting the Lognormal Distribution [Seite 366]
10.1.1.8 - 8.1.8 Properties of the Lognormal Distribution [Seite 367]
10.1.2 - 8.2 Ambient Aerosol Size Distributions [Seite 370]
10.1.2.1 - 8.2.1 Urban Aerosols [Seite 371]
10.1.2.2 - 8.2.2 Marine Aerosols [Seite 372]
10.1.2.3 - 8.2.3 Rural Continental Aerosols [Seite 375]
10.1.2.4 - 8.2.4 Remote Continental Aerosols [Seite 376]
10.1.2.5 - 8.2.5 Free Tropospheric Aerosols [Seite 376]
10.1.2.6 - 8.2.6 Polar Aerosols [Seite 377]
10.1.2.7 - 8.2.7 Desert Aerosols [Seite 377]
10.1.3 - 8.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition [Seite 380]
10.1.4 - 8.4 Spatiotemporal Variation [Seite 382]
10.1.5 - Problems [Seite 385]
10.1.6 - References [Seite 387]
10.2 - Chapter 9: Dynamics of Single Aerosol Particles [Seite 390]
10.2.1 - 9.1 Continuum and Noncontinuum Dynamics: the Mean Free Path [Seite 390]
10.2.1.1 - 9.1.1 Mean Free Path of a Pure Gas [Seite 391]
10.2.1.2 - 9.1.2 Mean Free Path of a Gas in a Binary Mixture [Seite 393]
10.2.2 - 9.2 The Drag on a Single Particle: Stokes' Law [Seite 396]
10.2.2.1 - 9.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law: The Drag Coefficient [Seite 399]
10.2.2.2 - 9.2.2 Stokes' Law and Noncontinuum Effects: Slip Correction Factor [Seite 399]
10.2.3 - 9.3 Gravitational Settling of an Aerosol Particle [Seite 400]
10.2.4 - 9.4 Motion of an Aerosol Particle in an External Force Field [Seite 404]
10.2.5 - 9.5 Brownian Motion of Aerosol Particles [Seite 404]
10.2.5.1 - 9.5.1 Particle Diffusion [Seite 407]
10.2.5.2 - 9.5.2 Aerosol Mobility and Drift Velocity [Seite 409]
10.2.5.3 - 9.5.3 Mean Free Path of an Aerosol Particle [Seite 412]
10.2.6 - 9.6 Aerosol and Fluid Motion [Seite 413]
10.2.6.1 - 9.6.1 Motion of a Particle in an Idealized Flow (90° Corner) [Seite 414]
10.2.6.2 - 9.6.2 Stop Distance and Stokes Number [Seite 415]
10.2.7 - 9.7 Equivalent Particle Diameters [Seite 416]
10.2.7.1 - 9.7.1 Volume Equivalent Diameter [Seite 416]
10.2.7.2 - 9.7.2 Stokes Diameter [Seite 418]
10.2.7.3 - 9.7.3 Classical Aerodynamic Diameter [Seite 419]
10.2.7.4 - 9.7.4 Electrical Mobility Equivalent Diameter [Seite 421]
10.2.8 - Problems [Seite 421]
10.2.9 - References [Seite 422]
10.3 - Chapter 10: Thermodynamics of Aerosols [Seite 424]
10.3.1 - 10.1 Thermodynamic Principles [Seite 424]
10.3.1.1 - 10.1.1 Internal Energy and Chemical Potential [Seite 424]
10.3.1.2 - 10.1.2 The Gibbs Free Energy G [Seite 426]
10.3.1.3 - 10.1.3 Conditions for Chemical Equilibrium [Seite 428]
10.3.1.4 - 10.1.4 Chemical Potentials of Ideal Gases and Ideal-Gas Mixtures [Seite 430]
10.3.1.4.1 - 10.1.4.1 The Single Ideal Gas [Seite 431]
10.3.1.4.2 - 10.1.4.2 The Ideal-Gas Mixture [Seite 431]
10.3.1.5 - 10.1.5 Chemical Potential of Solutions [Seite 432]
10.3.1.5.1 - 10.1.5.1 Ideal Solutions [Seite 432]
10.3.1.5.2 - 10.1.5.2 Nonideal Solutions [Seite 435]
10.3.1.5.3 - 10.1.5.3 Pure Solid Compounds [Seite 435]
10.3.1.5.4 - 10.1.5.4 Solutions of Electrolytes [Seite 436]
10.3.1.6 - 10.1.6 The Equilibrium Constant [Seite 436]
10.3.2 - 10.2 Aerosol Liquid Water Content [Seite 437]
10.3.2.1 - 10.2.1 Chemical Potential of Water in Atmospheric Particles [Seite 439]
10.3.2.2 - 10.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the DRH [Seite 440]
10.3.2.3 - 10.2.3 Deliquescence of Multicomponent Aerosols [Seite 443]
10.3.2.4 - 10.2.4 Crystallization of Single- and Multicomponent Salts [Seite 447]
10.3.3 - 10.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure Over a Curved Surface: the Kelvin Effect [Seite 447]
10.3.4 - 10.4 Thermodynamics of Atmospheric Aerosol Systems [Seite 451]
10.3.4.1 - 10.4.1 The H2SO4-H2O System [Seite 451]
10.3.4.2 - 10.4.2 The Sulfuric Acid-Ammonia-Water System [Seite 455]
10.3.4.3 - 10.4.3 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Water System [Seite 458]
10.3.4.3.1 - 10.4.3.1 Ammonium Nitrate Solutions [Seite 460]
10.3.4.4 - 10.4.4 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Sulfuric Acid-Water System [Seite 462]
10.3.4.5 - 10.4.5 Other Inorganic Aerosol Species [Seite 467]
10.3.4.6 - 10.4.6 Organic Aerosol [Seite 468]
10.3.5 - 10.5 Aerosol Thermodynamic Models [Seite 468]
10.3.6 - Problems [Seite 470]
10.3.7 - References [Seite 471]
10.4 - Chapter 11: Nucleation [Seite 476]
10.4.1 - 11.1 Classical Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation: Kinetic Approach [Seite 477]
10.4.1.1 - 11.1.1 The Forward Rate Constant ?i [Seite 480]
10.4.1.2 - 11.1.2 The Reverse Rate Constant ?i [Seite 481]
10.4.1.3 - 11.1.3 Derivation of the Nucleation Rate [Seite 481]
10.4.2 - 11.2 Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory: Constrained Equilibrium Approach [Seite 485]
10.4.2.1 - 11.2.1 Free Energy of i-mer Formation [Seite 485]
10.4.2.2 - 11.2.2 Constrained Equilibrium Cluster Distribution [Seite 487]
10.4.2.3 - 11.2.3 The Evaporation Coefficient ?i [Seite 489]
10.4.2.4 - 11.2.4 Nucleation Rate [Seite 489]
10.4.3 - 11.3 Recapitulation of Classical Theory [Seite 492]
10.4.4 - 11.4 Experimental Measurement of Nucleation Rates [Seite 493]
10.4.4.1 - 11.4.1 Upward Thermal Diffusion Cloud Chamber [Seite 494]
10.4.4.2 - 11.4.2 Fast Expansion Chamber [Seite 494]
10.4.4.3 - 11.4.3 Turbulent Mixing Chambers [Seite 495]
10.4.5 - 11.5 Modifications of the Classical Theory and More Rigorous Approaches [Seite 495]
10.4.6 - 11.6 Binary Homogeneous Nucleation [Seite 496]
10.4.7 - 11.7 Binary Nucleation in the H2so4-H2o System [Seite 501]
10.4.8 - 11.8 Nucleation on an Insoluble Foreign Surface [Seite 503]
10.4.9 - 11.9 Ion-Induced Nucleation [Seite 506]
10.4.10 - 11.10 Atmospheric New-Particle Formation [Seite 508]
10.4.10.1 - 11.10.1 Molecular Constituency of New Particles [Seite 509]
10.4.10.2 - 11.10.2 New-Particle Growth Rates [Seite 510]
10.4.10.3 - 11.10.3 CLOUD Studies of Atmospheric Nucleation [Seite 510]
10.4.10.4 - 11.10.4 Atmospheric Nucleation by Organic Species [Seite 515]
10.4.11 - Appendix 11 the Law of Mass Action [Seite 515]
10.4.12 - Problems [Seite 517]
10.4.13 - References [Seite 518]
10.5 - Chapter 12: Mass Transfer Aspects of Atmospheric Chemistry [Seite 521]
10.5.1 - 12.1 Mass and Heat Transfer to Atmospheric Particles [Seite 521]
10.5.1.1 - 12.1.1 The Continuum Regime [Seite 521]
10.5.1.2 - 12.1.2 The Kinetic Regime [Seite 525]
10.5.1.3 - 12.1.3 The Transition Regime [Seite 525]
10.5.1.3.1 - 12.1.3.1 Fuchs Theory [Seite 525]
10.5.1.3.2 - 12.1.3.2 Fuchs-Sutugin Approach [Seite 526]
10.5.1.3.3 - 12.1.3.3 Dahneke Approach [Seite 527]
10.5.1.3.4 - 12.1.3.4 Loyalka Approach [Seite 527]
10.5.1.3.5 - 12.1.3.5 Sitarski-Nowakowski Approach [Seite 527]
10.5.1.4 - 12.1.4 The Accommodation Coefficient [Seite 528]
10.5.2 - 12.2 Mass Transport Limitations in Aqueous-Phase Chemistry [Seite 531]
10.5.2.1 - 12.2.1 Characteristic Time for Gas-Phase Diffusion to a Particle [Seite 533]
10.5.2.2 - 12.2.2 Characteristic Time to Achieve Equilibrium at the Gas-Liquid Interface [Seite 534]
10.5.2.3 - 12.2.3 Characteristic Time of Aqueous Dissociation Reactions [Seite 536]
10.5.2.4 - 12.2.4 Characteristic Time of Aqueous-Phase Diffusion in a Droplet [Seite 538]
10.5.2.5 - 12.2.5 Characteristic Time for Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions [Seite 539]
10.5.3 - 12.3 Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Chemistry [Seite 539]
10.5.3.1 - 12.3.1 Gas-Phase Diffusion and Aqueous-Phase Reactions [Seite 540]
10.5.3.2 - 12.3.2 Aqueous-Phase Diffusion and Reaction [Seite 542]
10.5.3.3 - 12.3.3 Interfacial Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Reactions [Seite 543]
10.5.3.4 - 12.3.4 Application to the S(IV)-Ozone Reaction [Seite 545]
10.5.3.5 - 12.3.5 Application to the S(IV)-Hydrogen Peroxide Reaction [Seite 547]
10.5.3.6 - 12.3.6 Calculation of Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates [Seite 548]
10.5.3.6.1 - 12.3.6.1 No Mass Transport Limitations [Seite 548]
10.5.3.6.2 - 12.3.6.2 Aqueous-Phase Mass Transport Limitation [Seite 548]
10.5.3.6.3 - 12.3.6.3 Gas-Phase Limitation [Seite 551]
10.5.3.6.4 - 12.3.6.4 Interfacial Limitation [Seite 551]
10.5.3.6.5 - 12.3.6.5 Gas-Phase Plus Interfacial Limitation [Seite 551]
10.5.3.7 - 12.3.7 An Aqueous-Phase Chemistry/Mass Transport Model [Seite 553]
10.5.4 - 12.4 Mass Transfer to Falling Drops [Seite 554]
10.5.5 - 12.5 Characteristic Time for Atmospheric Aerosol Equilibrium [Seite 555]
10.5.5.1 - 12.5.1 Solid Aerosol Particles [Seite 556]
10.5.5.2 - 12.5.2 Aqueous Aerosol Particles [Seite 557]
10.5.6 - 12. Appendix 12 Solution of the Transient Gas-Phase Diffusion [Seite 560]
10.5.7 - Problems [Seite 561]
10.5.8 - References [Seite 563]
10.6 - Chapter 13: Dynamics of Aerosol Populations [Seite 565]
10.6.1 - 13.1 Mathematical Representations of Aerosol Size Distributions [Seite 565]
10.6.1.1 - 13.1.1 Discrete Distribution [Seite 565]
10.6.1.2 - 13.1.2 Continuous Distribution [Seite 566]
10.6.2 - 13.2 Condensation [Seite 566]
10.6.2.1 - 13.2.1 The Condensation Equation [Seite 566]
10.6.2.2 - 13.2.2 Solution of the Condensation Equation [Seite 568]
10.6.3 - 13.3 Coagulation [Seite 572]
10.6.3.1 - 13.3.1 Brownian Coagulation [Seite 572]
10.6.3.1.1 - 13.3.1.1 Continuum Regime [Seite 572]
10.6.3.1.2 - 13.3.1.2 Transition and Free Molecular Regime [Seite 575]
10.6.3.1.3 - 13.3.1.3 Coagulation Rates [Seite 576]
10.6.3.1.4 - 13.3.1.4 Collision Efficiency [Seite 578]
10.6.3.2 - 13.3.2 The Coagulation Equation [Seite 579]
10.6.3.2.1 - 13.3.2.1 The Discrete Coagulation Equation [Seite 579]
10.6.3.2.2 - 13.3.2.2 The Continuous Coagulation Equation [Seite 581]
10.6.3.3 - 13.3.3 Solution of the Coagulation Equation [Seite 581]
10.6.3.3.1 - 13.3.3.1 Discrete Coagulation Equation [Seite 581]
10.6.3.3.2 - 13.3.3.2 Continuous Coagulation Equation [Seite 583]
10.6.4 - 13.4 The Discrete General Dynamic Equation [Seite 585]
10.6.5 - 13.5 The Continuous General Dynamic Equation [Seite 586]
10.6.6 - Appendix 13.1 Additional Mechanisms of Coagulation [Seite 588]
10.6.6.1 - 13.A.1 Coagulation in Laminar Shear Flow [Seite 588]
10.6.6.2 - 13.A.2 Coagulation in Turbulent Flow [Seite 588]
10.6.6.3 - 13.A.3 Coagulation from Gravitational Settling [Seite 589]
10.6.6.4 - 13.A.4 Brownian Coagulation and External Force Fields [Seite 590]
10.6.6.4.1 - 13.A.4.1 Van der Waals Forces [Seite 590]
10.6.6.4.2 - 13.A.4.2 Coulomb Forces [Seite 592]
10.6.6.4.3 - 13.A.4.3 Hydrodynamic Forces [Seite 593]
10.6.7 - Appendix 13.2 Solution of (13.73) [Seite 595]
10.6.8 - Problems [Seite 596]
10.6.9 - References [Seite 599]
10.7 - Chapter 14: Atmospheric Organic Aerosols [Seite 601]
10.7.1 - 14.1 Chemistry of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation [Seite 602]
10.7.1.1 - 14.1.1 Oxidation State of Organic Compounds [Seite 604]
10.7.1.2 - 14.1.2 Generation of Highly Oxygenated Species by Autoxidation [Seite 607]
10.7.2 - 14.2 Volatility of Organic Compounds [Seite 610]
10.7.3 - 14.3 Idealized Description of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation [Seite 611]
10.7.3.1 - 14.3.1 Noninteracting Secondary Organic Aerosol Compounds [Seite 611]
10.7.3.2 - 14.3.2 Formation of Binary Ideal Solution with Preexisting Aerosol [Seite 614]
10.7.3.3 - 14.3.3 Formation of Binary Ideal Solution with Other Organic Vapor [Seite 616]
10.7.4 - 14.4 Gas-Particle Partitioning [Seite 618]
10.7.4.1 - 14.4.1 Gas-Particle Equilibrium [Seite 618]
10.7.4.2 - 14.4.2 Effect of Aerosol Water on Gas-Particle Partitioning [Seite 622]
10.7.5 - 14.5 Models of Soa Formation and Evolution [Seite 624]
10.7.5.1 - 14.5.1 The Volatility Basis Set [Seite 625]
10.7.5.2 - 14.5.2 Two-Dimensional SOA Models [Seite 631]
10.7.5.2.1 - 14.5.2.1 Two-Dimensional VBS [Seite 631]
10.7.5.2.2 - 14.5.2.2 Statistical Oxidation Model (SOM) [Seite 632]
10.7.5.2.3 - 14.5.2.3 Carbon Number-Polarity Grid (CNPG) [Seite 633]
10.7.5.2.4 - 14.5.2.4 Functional Group Oxidation Model (FGOM) [Seite 633]
10.7.5.2.5 - 14.5.2.5 Conclusion [Seite 633]
10.7.6 - 14.6 Primary Organic Aerosol [Seite 633]
10.7.7 - 14.7 The Physical State of Organic Aerosols [Seite 636]
10.7.8 - 14.8 Soa Particle-Phase Chemistry [Seite 638]
10.7.8.1 - 14.8.1 Particle-Phase Accretion Reactions [Seite 640]
10.7.8.2 - 14.8.2 Heterogeneous Gas-Aerosol Reactions [Seite 640]
10.7.9 - 14.9 Aqueous-Phase Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation [Seite 643]
10.7.9.1 - 14.9.1 Gas- versus Aqueous-Phase Routes to SOA [Seite 644]
10.7.9.2 - 14.9.2 Sources of OH Radicals in the Aqueous Phase [Seite 646]
10.7.9.3 - 14.9.3 Glyoxal as a Source of aqSOA [Seite 647]
10.7.10 - 14.10 Estimates of the Global Budget of Atmospheric Organic Aerosol [Seite 650]
10.7.10.1 - 14.10.1 Estimate Based on Total VOC Emissions [Seite 650]
10.7.10.2 - 14.10.2 Sulfate Lifetime and Ratio of Organic to Sulfate [Seite 650]
10.7.10.3 - 14.10.3 Atmospheric Burden and Lifetime of SOA [Seite 651]
10.7.10.4 - 14.10.4 Satellite Measurements [Seite 651]
10.7.11 - Problems [Seite 651]
10.7.12 - References [Seite 654]
10.8 - Chapter 15: Interaction of Aerosols with Radiation [Seite 661]
10.8.1 - 15.1 Scattering and Absorption of Light By Small Particles [Seite 661]
10.8.1.1 - 15.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering Regime [Seite 666]
10.8.1.2 - 15.1.2 Geometric Scattering Regime [Seite 668]
10.8.1.3 - 15.1.3 Scattering Phase Function [Seite 668]
10.8.1.4 - 15.1.4 Extinction by an Ensemble of Particles [Seite 668]
10.8.2 - 15.2 Visibility [Seite 672]
10.8.3 - 15.3 Scattering, Absorption, and Extinction Coefficients From Mie Theory [Seite 675]
10.8.4 - 15.4 Calculated Visibility Reduction Based on Atmospheric Data [Seite 679]
10.8.5 - Appendix 15 Calculation of Scattering and Extinction Coefficients By Mie Theory [Seite 682]
10.8.6 - Problems [Seite 682]
10.8.7 - References [Seite 684]
11 - Part IV: Physical and Dynamic Meteorology, Cloud Physics, and Atmospheric Diffusion [Seite 687]
11.1 - Chapter 16: Physical and Dynamic Meteorology [Seite 689]
11.1.1 - 16.1 Temperature in the Lower Atmosphere [Seite 689]
11.1.2 - 16.2 Atmospheric Stability [Seite 693]
11.1.3 - 16.3 The Moist Atmosphere [Seite 698]
11.1.3.1 - 16.3.1 The Gas Constant for Moist Air [Seite 699]
11.1.3.2 - 16.3.2 Level of Cloud Formation: The Lifting Condensation Level [Seite 699]
11.1.3.3 - 16.3.3 Dew-point and Wet-Bulb Temperatures [Seite 701]
11.1.3.4 - 16.3.4 The Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate [Seite 703]
11.1.3.5 - 16.3.5 Stability of Moist Air [Seite 707]
11.1.3.6 - 16.3.6 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) [Seite 708]
11.1.3.7 - 16.3.7 Thermodynamic Diagrams [Seite 709]
11.1.4 - 16.4 Basic Conservation Equations for the Atmospheric Surface Layer [Seite 711]
11.1.4.1 - 16.4.1 Turbulence [Seite 715]
11.1.4.2 - 16.4.2 Equations for the Mean Quantities [Seite 716]
11.1.4.3 - 16.4.3 Mixing-Length Models for Turbulent Transport [Seite 718]
11.1.5 - 16.5 Variation of Wind With Height in the Atmosphere [Seite 720]
11.1.5.1 - 16.5.1 Mean Velocity in the Adiabatic Surface Layer over a Smooth Surface [Seite 721]
11.1.5.2 - 16.5.2 Mean Velocity in the Adiabatic Surface Layer over a Rough Surface [Seite 722]
11.1.5.3 - 16.5.3 Mean Velocity Profiles in the Nonadiabatic Surface Layer [Seite 723]
11.1.5.4 - 16.5.4 The Pasquill Stability Classes-Estimation of L [Seite 726]
11.1.5.5 - 16.5.5 Empirical Equation for the Mean Windspeed [Seite 728]
11.1.6 - Appendix 16.1 Properties of Water and Water Solutions [Seite 729]
11.1.6.1 - 16.A.1 Specific Heat of Water and Ice [Seite 729]
11.1.6.2 - 16.A.2 Latent Heats of Vaporization and Melting for Water [Seite 729]
11.1.6.3 - 16.A.3 Water Surface Tension [Seite 729]
11.1.7 - Appendix 16.2 Derivation of the Basic Equations of Surface-Layer Atmospheric Fluid Mechanics [Seite 730]
11.1.8 - Problems [Seite 733]
11.1.9 - References [Seite 734]
11.2 - Chapter 17: Cloud Physics [Seite 736]
11.2.1 - 17.1 Equilibrium of Water Droplets in the Atmosphere [Seite 736]
11.2.1.1 - 17.1.1 Equilibrium of a Pure Water Droplet [Seite 736]
11.2.1.2 - 17.1.2 Equilibrium of a Flat Water Solution [Seite 738]
11.2.1.3 - 17.1.3 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop [Seite 740]
11.2.1.3.1 - 17.1.3.1 Stability of Atmospheric Droplets [Seite 743]
11.2.1.4 - 17.1.4 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop Containing an Insoluble Substance [Seite 745]
11.2.2 - 17.2 Cloud and Fog Formation [Seite 747]
11.2.2.1 - 17.2.1 Isobaric Cooling [Seite 748]
11.2.2.2 - 17.2.2 Adiabatic Cooling [Seite 748]
11.2.2.3 - 17.2.3 A Simplified Mathematical Description of Cloud Formation [Seite 749]
11.2.3 - 17.3 Growth Rate of Individual Cloud Droplets [Seite 751]
11.2.4 - 17.4 Growth of a Droplet Population [Seite 754]
11.2.5 - 17.5 Cloud Condensation Nuclei [Seite 758]
11.2.5.1 - 17.5.1 Ambient CCN [Seite 761]
11.2.5.2 - 17.5.2 The Hygroscopic Parameter Kappa [Seite 761]
11.2.6 - 17.6 Cloud Processing of Aerosols [Seite 764]
11.2.6.1 - 17.6.1 Nucleation Scavenging of Aerosols by Clouds [Seite 764]
11.2.6.2 - 17.6.2 Chemical Composition of Cloud Droplets [Seite 765]
11.2.6.3 - 17.6.3 Nonraining Cloud Effects on Aerosol Concentrations [Seite 767]
11.2.6.4 - 17.6.4 Interstitial Aerosol Scavenging by Cloud Droplets [Seite 770]
11.2.7 - 17.7 Other Forms of Water in the Atmosphere [Seite 771]
11.2.7.1 - 17.7.1 Ice Clouds [Seite 771]
11.2.7.1.1 - 17.7.1.1 Freezing-Point Depression [Seite 772]
11.2.7.1.2 - 17.7.1.2 Curvature Effects [Seite 774]
11.2.7.1.3 - 17.7.1.3 Ice Nucleating Particles (INP) [Seite 774]
11.2.7.2 - 17.7.2 Rain [Seite 775]
11.2.7.2.1 - 17.7.2.1 Raindrop Distributions [Seite 778]
11.2.8 - Appendix 17 Extended Köhler Theory [Seite 779]
11.2.8.1 - 17.1 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Soluble Trace Gas [Seite 779]
11.2.8.2 - 17.2 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Slightly Soluble Substance [Seite 782]
11.2.8.3 - 17.3 Modified Form of Köhler Theory for a Surface-Active Solute [Seite 783]
11.2.8.4 - 17.4 Examples [Seite 784]
11.2.9 - Problems [Seite 787]
11.2.10 - References [Seite 788]
11.3 - Chapter 18: Atmospheric Diffusion [Seite 791]
11.3.1 - 18.1 Eulerian Approach [Seite 791]
11.3.2 - 18.2 Lagrangian Approach [Seite 794]
11.3.3 - 18.3 Comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches [Seite 795]
11.3.4 - 18.4 Equations Governing the Mean Concentration of Species in Turbulence [Seite 795]
11.3.4.1 - 18.4.1 Eulerian Approaches [Seite 795]
11.3.4.2 - 18.4.2 Lagrangian Approaches [Seite 797]
11.3.5 - 18.5 Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation For an Instantaneous Source [Seite 799]
11.3.6 - 18.6 Mean Concentration from Continuous Sources [Seite 800]
11.3.6.1 - 18.6.1 Lagrangian Approach [Seite 800]
11.3.6.1.1 - 18.6.1.1 An Alternate Derivation of (18.42) [Seite 802]
11.3.6.1.2 - 18.6.1.2 Still Another Derivation of (18.42) [Seite 804]
11.3.6.2 - 18.6.2 Eulerian Approach [Seite 804]
11.3.6.2.1 - 18.6.2.1 An Alternate Derivation of (18.55) [Seite 805]
11.3.6.3 - 18.6.3 Summary of Continuous Point Source Solutions [Seite 805]
11.3.7 - 18.7 Statistical Theory of Turbulent Diffusion [Seite 806]
11.3.7.1 - 18.7.1 Qualitative Features of Atmospheric Diffusion [Seite 806]
11.3.7.2 - 18.7.2 Motion of a Single Particle Relative to a Fixed Axis [Seite 808]
11.3.8 - 18.8 Summary of Atmospheric Diffusion Theories [Seite 811]
11.3.9 - 18.9 Analytical Solutions for Atmospheric Diffusion: the Gaussian Plume Equation and Others [Seite 812]
11.3.9.1 - 18.9.1 Gaussian Concentration Distributions [Seite 812]
11.3.9.1.1 - 18.9.1.1 Total Reflection at z = 0 [Seite 813]
11.3.9.1.2 - 18.9.1.2 Total Absorption at z = 0 [Seite 813]
11.3.9.2 - 18.9.2 Derivation of the Gaussian Plume Equation as a Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation [Seite 814]
11.3.9.2.1 - 18.9.2.1 Solution of (18.90) to (18.92) [Seite 815]
11.3.9.3 - 18.9.3 Summary of Gaussian Point Source Diffusion Formulas [Seite 819]
11.3.10 - 18.10 Dispersion Parameters in Gaussian Models [Seite 819]
11.3.10.1 - 18.10.1 Correlations for ?y and ?z Based on Similarity Theory [Seite 819]
11.3.10.2 - 18.10.2 Correlations for ?y and ?z Based on Pasquill Stability Classes [Seite 823]
11.3.11 - 18.11 Plume Rise [Seite 824]
11.3.12 - 18.12 Functional Forms of Mean Windspeed and Eddy Diffusivities [Seite 826]
11.3.12.1 - 18.12.1 Mean Windspeed [Seite 828]
11.3.12.2 - 18.12.2 Vertical Eddy Diffusion Coefficient Kzz [Seite 828]
11.3.12.2.1 - 18.12.2.1 Unstable Conditions [Seite 828]
11.3.12.2.2 - 18.12.2.2 Neutral Conditions [Seite 829]
11.3.12.2.3 - 18.12.2.3 Stable Conditions [Seite 831]
11.3.12.3 - 18.12.3 Horizontal Eddy Diffusion Coefficients Kxx and Kyy [Seite 831]
11.3.13 - 18.13 Solutions of The Steady-State Atmospheric Diffusion Equation [Seite 831]
11.3.13.1 - 18.13.1 Diffusion from a Point Source [Seite 832]
11.3.13.2 - 18.13.2 Diffusion from a Line Source [Seite 833]
11.3.14 - APPENDIX 18.1 Further Solutions of Atmospheric Diffusion Problems [Seite 835]
11.3.14.1 - 18A.1 Solution of (18.29)-(18.31) [Seite 835]
11.3.14.2 - 18A.2 Solution of (18.50) and (18.51) [Seite 837]
11.3.14.3 - 18A.3 Solution of (18.59)-(18.61) [Seite 838]
11.3.15 - APPENDIX 18.2 Analytical Properties of the Gaussian Plume Equation [Seite 839]
11.3.16 - Problems [Seite 843]
11.3.17 - REFERENCES [Seite 851]
12 - Part V: Dry and Wet Deposition [Seite 855]
12.1 - Chapter 19: Dry Deposition [Seite 857]
12.1.1 - 19.1 Deposition Velocity [Seite 857]
12.1.2 - 19.2 Resistance Model for Dry Deposition [Seite 858]
12.1.3 - 19.3 Aerodynamic Resistance [Seite 862]
12.1.4 - 19.4 Quasilaminar Resistance [Seite 863]
12.1.4.1 - 19.4.1 Gases [Seite 864]
12.1.4.2 - 19.4.2 Particles [Seite 864]
12.1.5 - 19.5 Surface Resistance [Seite 867]
12.1.5.1 - 19.5.1 Surface Resistance for Dry Deposition of Gases to Water [Seite 869]
12.1.5.2 - 19.5.2 Surface Resistance for Dry Deposition of Gases to Vegetation [Seite 873]
12.1.6 - 19.6 Measurement of Dry Deposition [Seite 877]
12.1.6.1 - 19.6.1 Direct Methods [Seite 877]
12.1.6.1.1 - 19.6.1.1 Surrogate Surfaces [Seite 877]
12.1.6.1.2 - 19.6.1.2 Natural Surfaces [Seite 877]
12.1.6.1.3 - 19.6.1.3 Chamber Method [Seite 878]
12.1.6.1.4 - 19.6.1.4 Eddy Correlation [Seite 878]
12.1.6.1.5 - 19.6.1.5 Eddy Accumulation [Seite 878]
12.1.6.2 - 19.6.2 Indirect Methods [Seite 878]
12.1.6.2.1 - 19.6.2.1 Gradient Method [Seite 878]
12.1.6.2.2 - 19.6.2.2 Inferential Method [Seite 879]
12.1.6.3 - 19.6.3 Comparison of Methods [Seite 879]
12.1.7 - 19.7 Some Comments on Modeling and Measurement of Dry Deposition [Seite 879]
12.1.8 - Problems [Seite 880]
12.1.9 - References [Seite 882]
12.2 - Chapter 20: Wet Deposition [Seite 884]
12.2.1 - 20.1 General Representation of Atmospheric Wet Removal Processesƒ [Seite 884]
12.2.2 - 20.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of Gases [Seite 888]
12.2.2.1 - 20.2.1 Below-Cloud Scavenging of an Irreversibly Soluble Gas [Seite 889]
12.2.2.2 - 20.2.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of a Reversibly Soluble Gas [Seite 892]
12.2.3 - 20.3 Precipitation Scavenging of Particles [Seite 896]
12.2.3.1 - 20.3.1 Raindrop-Aerosol Collision Efficiency [Seite 898]
12.2.3.2 - 20.3.2 Scavenging Rates [Seite 899]
12.2.4 - 20.4 In-Cloud Scavenging [Seite 901]
12.2.5 - 20.5 Acid Deposition [Seite 902]
12.2.5.1 - 20.5.1 Acid Rain Overview [Seite 902]
12.2.5.1.1 - 20.5.1.1 Historical Perspective [Seite 902]
12.2.5.1.2 - 20.5.1.2 Definition of the Problem [Seite 903]
12.2.5.2 - 20.5.2 Surface Water Acidification [Seite 904]
12.2.5.3 - 20.5.3 Cloudwater Deposition [Seite 905]
12.2.5.4 - 20.5.4 Fogs and Wet Deposition [Seite 905]
12.2.6 - 20.6 Acid Deposition Process Synthesis [Seite 906]
12.2.6.1 - 20.6.1 Chemical Species Involved in Acid Deposition [Seite 906]
12.2.6.2 - 20.6.2 Dry versus Wet Deposition [Seite 906]
12.2.6.3 - 20.6.3 Chemical Pathways for Sulfate and Nitrate Production [Seite 906]
12.2.6.4 - 20.6.4 Source-Receptor Relationships [Seite 907]
12.2.6.5 - 20.6.5 Linearity [Seite 908]
12.2.7 - Problems [Seite 909]
12.2.8 - References [Seite 914]
13 - Part VI: The Global Atmosphere, Biogeochemical Cycles, and Climate [Seite 917]
13.1 - Chapter 21: General Circulation of the Atmosphere [Seite 919]
13.1.1 - 21.1 Hadley Cell [Seite 921]
13.1.2 - 21.2 Ferrell Cell and Polar Cell [Seite 921]
13.1.3 - 21.3 Coriolis Force [Seite 923]
13.1.4 - 21.4 Geostrophic Windspeed [Seite 925]
13.1.4.1 - 21.4.1 Buys Ballot's Law [Seite 927]
13.1.4.2 - 21.4.2 Ekman Spiral [Seite 928]
13.1.5 - 21.5 The Thermal Wind Relation [Seite 930]
13.1.6 - 21.6 Stratospheric Dynamics [Seite 933]
13.1.7 - 21.7 The Hydrologic Cycle [Seite 933]
13.1.8 - Problems [Seite 934]
13.1.9 - References [Seite 935]
13.2 - Chapter 22: Global Cycles: Sulfur and Carbon [Seite 936]
13.2.1 - 22.1 The Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle [Seite 936]
13.2.2 - 22.2 The Global Carbon Cycle [Seite 940]
13.2.2.1 - 22.2.1 Carbon Dioxide [Seite 940]
13.2.2.2 - 22.2.2 Compartmental Model of the Global Carbon Cycle [Seite 942]
13.2.2.3 - 22.2.3 Atmospheric Lifetime of CO2 [Seite 949]
13.2.3 - 22.3 Solution for a Steady-State Four-Compartment Model of the Atmosphere [Seite 951]
13.2.4 - Problems [Seite 955]
13.2.5 - References [Seite 957]
13.3 - Chapter 23: Global Climate [Seite 959]
13.3.1 - 23.1 Earth'S Energy Balance [Seite 959]
13.3.2 - 23.2 Radiative Forcing [Seite 961]
13.3.2.1 - 23.2.1 Climate Sensitivity [Seite 962]
13.3.2.2 - 23.2.2 Climate Feedbacks [Seite 963]
13.3.2.3 - 23.2.3 Timescales of Climate Change [Seite 963]
13.3.3 - 23.3 The Greenhouse Effect [Seite 964]
13.3.4 - 23.4 Climate-Forcing Agents [Seite 970]
13.3.4.1 - 23.4.1 Solar Irradiance [Seite 970]
13.3.4.2 - 23.4.2 Greenhouse Gases [Seite 973]
13.3.4.3 - 23.4.3 Radiative Efficiencies of Greenhouse Gases [Seite 974]
13.3.4.4 - 23.4.4 Aerosols [Seite 974]
13.3.4.5 - 23.4.5 Summary of IPCC (2013) Estimated Forcing [Seite 975]
13.3.4.6 - 23.4.6 The Preindustrial Atmosphere [Seite 976]
13.3.5 - 23.5 Cosmic Rays and Climate [Seite 977]
13.3.6 - 23.6 Climate Sensitivity [Seite 978]
13.3.7 - 23.7 Simplified Dynamic Description of Climate Forcing and Responseƒ [Seite 979]
13.3.7.1 - 23.7.1 Response to a Perturbation of Earth's Radiative Equilibrium [Seite 979]
13.3.7.2 - 23.7.2 Physical Interpretation of Feedback Factors [Seite 982]
13.3.8 - 23.8 Climate Feedbacks [Seite 983]
13.3.8.1 - 23.8.1 Water Vapor Feedback [Seite 983]
13.3.8.2 - 23.8.2 Lapse Rate Feedback [Seite 984]
13.3.8.3 - 23.8.3 Cloud Feedback [Seite 984]
13.3.8.4 - 23.8.4 Arctic Sea Ice Feedback [Seite 986]
13.3.8.5 - 23.8.5 Summary of Feedbacks [Seite 986]
13.3.9 - 23.9 Relative Radiative Forcing Indices [Seite 988]
13.3.10 - 23.10 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Change [Seite 989]
13.3.10.1 - 23.10.1 Indirect Chemical Impacts [Seite 990]
13.3.10.2 - 23.10.2 Atmospheric Lifetimes and Adjustment Times [Seite 991]
13.3.11 - 23.11 Conclusion [Seite 992]
13.3.12 - Problems [Seite 993]
13.3.13 - References [Seite 995]
13.4 - Chapter 24: Aerosols and Climate [Seite 998]
13.4.1 - 24.1 Scattering-Absorbing Model of an Aerosol Layer [Seite 1000]
13.4.2 - 24.2 Cooling Versus Heating of an Aerosol Layer [Seite 1003]
13.4.3 - 24.3 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer for a Nonabsorbing Aerosol [Seite 1005]
13.4.4 - 24.4 Upscatter Fraction [Seite 1007]
13.4.5 - 24.5 Optical Depth and Column Forcing [Seite 1009]
13.4.6 - 24.6 Internal and External Mixtures [Seite 1013]
13.4.7 - 24.7 Top-Of-The-Atmosphere Versus Surface Forcing [Seite 1015]
13.4.8 - 24.8 Indirect Effects of Aerosols on Climate [Seite 1018]
13.4.8.1 - 24.8.1 Stratocumulus Clouds [Seite 1019]
13.4.8.2 - 24.8.2 Simplified Model for Cloud Albedo [Seite 1021]
13.4.8.3 - 24.8.3 Albedo Susceptibility: Simplified Model [Seite 1023]
13.4.8.4 - 24.8.4 Albedo Susceptibility: Additional Considerations [Seite 1025]
13.4.8.5 - 24.8.5 A General Equation for Cloud Albedo Susceptibility [Seite 1027]
13.4.8.6 - 24.8.6 Estimating Indirect Aerosol Forcing on Climate [Seite 1031]
13.4.9 - Problems [Seite 1031]
13.4.10 - References [Seite 1032]
14 - Part VII: Chemical Transport Models and Statistical Models [Seite 1037]
14.1 - Chapter 25: Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models [Seite 1039]
14.1.1 - 25.1 Introduction [Seite 1039]
14.1.1.1 - 25.1.1 Model Types [Seite 1040]
14.1.1.2 - 25.1.2 Types of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models [Seite 1041]
14.1.2 - 25.2 Box Models [Seite 1042]
14.1.2.1 - 25.2.1 The Eulerian Box Model [Seite 1043]
14.1.2.2 - 25.2.2 A Lagrangian Box Model [Seite 1045]
14.1.3 - 25.3 Three-Dimensional Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models [Seite 1048]
14.1.3.1 - 25.3.1 Coordinate System-Uneven Terrain [Seite 1048]
14.1.3.2 - 25.3.2 Initial Conditions [Seite 1050]
14.1.3.3 - 25.3.3 Boundary Conditions [Seite 1051]
14.1.4 - 25.4 One-Dimensional Lagrangian Models [Seite 1052]
14.1.5 - 25.5 Other Forms of Chemical Transport Models [Seite 1054]
14.1.5.1 - 25.5.1 Atmospheric Diffusion Equation Expressed in Terms of Mixing Ratio [Seite 1054]
14.1.5.2 - 25.5.2 Pressure-Based Coordinate System [Seite 1057]
14.1.5.3 - 25.5.3 Spherical Coordinates [Seite 1059]
14.1.6 - 25.6 Numerical Solution of Chemical Transport Models [Seite 1059]
14.1.6.1 - 25.6.1 Coupling Problem-Operator Splitting [Seite 1060]
14.1.6.1.1 - 25.6.1.1 Finite Difference Methods [Seite 1060]
14.1.6.1.2 - 25.6.1.2 Finite Element Methods [Seite 1062]
14.1.6.1.3 - 25.6.1.3 Operator Splitting [Seite 1063]
14.1.6.2 - 25.6.2 Chemical Kinetics [Seite 1065]
14.1.6.2.1 - 25.6.2.1 Backward Differentiation Methods [Seite 1068]
14.1.6.2.2 - 25.6.2.2 Asymptotic Methods [Seite 1068]
14.1.6.3 - 25.6.3 Diffusion [Seite 1069]
14.1.6.4 - 25.6.4 Advection [Seite 1070]
14.1.7 - 25.7 Model Evaluation [Seite 1074]
14.1.8 - 25.8 Response of Organic and Inorganic Aerosols to Changes in Emission [Seite 1075]
14.1.9 - Problems [Seite 1076]
14.1.10 - References [Seite 1078]
14.2 - Chapter 26: Statistical Models [Seite 1079]
14.2.1 - 26.1 Receptor Modeling Methods [Seite 1079]
14.2.2 - 26.2 Chemical Mass Balance (Cmb) [Seite 1082]
14.2.2.1 - 26.2.1 CMB Evaluation [Seite 1086]
14.2.2.2 - 26.2.2 CMB Resolution [Seite 1087]
14.2.2.3 - 26.2.3 CMB Codes [Seite 1087]
14.2.3 - 26.3 Factor Analysis [Seite 1087]
14.2.3.1 - 26.3.1 Principal-Component Analysis (PCA) [Seite 1089]
14.2.3.2 - 26.3.2 Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) [Seite 1092]
14.2.3.2.1 - 26.3.2.1 Uncertainties and Missing Values [Seite 1092]
14.2.3.2.2 - 26.3.2.2 Extreme Values [Seite 1093]
14.2.3.2.3 - 26.3.2.3 Choice of Number of Factors [Seite 1093]
14.2.3.2.4 - 26.3.2.4 Rotational Ambiguity [Seite 1094]
14.2.3.2.5 - 26.3.2.5 The Multilinear Engine (ME) [Seite 1095]
14.2.4 - 26.4 Methods Incorporating Wind Information [Seite 1095]
14.2.4.1 - 26.4.1 Potential Source Contribution Function (PSCF) [Seite 1096]
14.2.4.2 - 26.4.2 Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) [Seite 1098]
14.2.5 - 26.5 Probability Distributions for Air Pollutant Concentrations [Seite 1100]
14.2.5.1 - 26.5.1 The Lognormal Distribution [Seite 1101]
14.2.5.2 - 26.5.2 The Weibull Distribution [Seite 1102]
14.2.6 - 26.6 Estimation of Parameters in the Distributions [Seite 1102]
14.2.6.1 - 26.6.1 Method of Quantiles [Seite 1103]
14.2.6.2 - 26.6.2 Method of Moments [Seite 1104]
14.2.7 - 26.7 Order Statistics of Air Quality Data [Seite 1106]
14.2.7.1 - 26.7.1 Basic Notions and Terminology of Order Statistics [Seite 1106]
14.2.7.2 - 26.7.2 Extreme Values [Seite 1107]
14.2.8 - 26.8 Exceedances of Critical Levels [Seite 1108]
14.2.9 - 26.9 Alternative Forms of Air Quality Standards [Seite 1108]
14.2.10 - 26.10 Relating Current and Future Air Pollutant Statistical Distributions [Seite 1111]
14.2.11 - Problems [Seite 1113]
14.2.12 - References [Seite 1115]
15 - Appendix A: Units and Physical Constants [Seite 1119]
15.1 - A.1 Si Base Units [Seite 1119]
15.2 - A.2 Si Derived Units [Seite 1120]
15.3 - A.3 Fundamental Physical Constants [Seite 1122]
15.4 - A.4 Properties of the Atmosphere and Water [Seite 1122]
15.5 - A.5 Units for Representing Chemical Reactions [Seite 1124]
15.6 - A.6 Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase [Seite 1124]
15.7 - A.7 Symbols Denoting Concentration [Seite 1125]
15.8 - References [Seite 1125]
16 - Appendix B: Rate Constants of Atmospheric Chemical Reactions [Seite 1126]
16.1 - References [Seite 1134]
17 - Appendix C: Abbreviations [Seite 1135]
18 - Index [Seite 1140]
19 - EULA [Seite 1149]