Satellite Communications Regulations in the Early 21st Century

Name: Satellite Communications Regulations in the Early 21st Century | Changes for a New Era
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Changes for a New Era

Patrick-André Salin(Autor*in)

Kluwer Law International (Verlag)

Erschienen am 1. November 2000

614 Seiten

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Beschreibung

This volume is about the sweeping technical and regulatory changes which have moulded the new regulatory framework of space communications. WARC-92 introduced the LEO systems, WRC-5 confirmed the access of large international corporations to negotiating tables with member state representatives, WRC-97 saw the first exchanges of rounds between North America and Western Europe in the planetary quest for new business markets, and WRC- 2000 saw the introduction of new technologies that will revolutionize space communications: satellite navigation services and new 3G mobile services, within a context of accelerated commercialization of global telecommunications and many institutional, legal and regulatory questions that remain to be settled. The coming conferences of the next century promise to be challenging. The legal and institutional process, which charters such unprecedented technical revolution, is still primarily in the domain of international law experts. Yet, several other legal specialities also tackle what space-based communications are: trade, air navigation, culture, education, etc., in intimate contact with legitimate profitmaking concerns and stratigic interest considerations.

This volume is conceptually divided into two parts but actually has three parts. It is organised around the traditional distinction between internationals satellite regulations (Part One) and regional satellite regulations; while this second level deals with North American and Western European regulations (Parts Two and Three). The outcome of this research is, first, to present the evolution of the regulatory framework of space-based communications, second, to underline the mounting importance of administrative regulations which tend to be granted a de facto status of standard laws and, third, to draw the attention of the public consciousness to the win-lose type of trans-Atlantic competition that is taking place on the planetary stage, tht should change into a win-win scenario in the end.

Such a broad fresco had never been presented before in such a compact format to a worldwide community of readers. This book is a store-house of reference information for all who are actively involved in satellite regulations, in both the academic and the professional community, as well as those in the general public who are interested in international affairs.

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Inhalt

Cover
Half Title Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Foreword
About the Author
Introduction
I. SCOPE OF THE BOOK
II. CONTRIBUTION OF THE BOOK
Part I Legal Aspects of the Space-based Communications Dual Convergence: Regulations of Different Origins are Shaping the Satellite Communications of the Future
Chapter I Satellite Communication Regulations Belong to a Diversified International Legal System
1.1. SPACE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS ARE PART OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
1.1.1. A Long Established Practice which Originates in Regular International Communications
1.1.2. Space Communications Expand the Scope of International Law
1.1.2.1. The Way to Cosmic Law?
1.1.2.2. Non-appropriation of Outer Space
1.1.2.3. The Interpretation 0/ Nation States: "Real-politik" Constraints
1.1.3. Satellite Communications are a Major Agenda Item ofthe United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UN-COPUOS)
1.2. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS ARE PART OF SPACE LAW
1.2.1. Satellite Communications Contribute to Space Law's Uniqueness
1.2.1.1. Universality and Autonomy
1.2.1.2. For the Benefit and in the Interest of All Countries
1.2.2. Mankind Common Heritage v. Sovereignty Principle
1.2.2.1. Principles Adapted from Public International Law
1.2.2.2. Principles which are Specific to Space Law
1.2.2.3. Legitimate National Claims over the Orbit/Frequency Resource
1.2.3. A Mix of Legal Concerns Related to Outer Space
1.2.3.1. Space Law is an Area Classification
1.2.3.2. Space Law Inevitably Triggers a Commercial Involvement
1.3. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS ALSO HAVE THEIR OWN SPECIFIC FEATURES
1.3.1. A Specific Regime oi International Responsibility which is Essentially Geared around the Nation State and the "National" Connection
1.3.2. A "corpus juris spatialis" which is also Composed of the National Space Laws and Regulations of Participating Nations, that is the Practice of Space Affairs by Space Nations
1.3.2.1. The Reception of the Rule of International (Space) Law into National Law
1.3.2.2. The Extraterritorial Effect of Some National Laws on the Territory of Other Nations
1.3.3. Satellite Communications are also an Instrument of International Economic Law and Cooperation
1.3.3.1. The Development of the Economics Aspects of International Space Law
1.3.3.2. Satellite Communications are Based on Commercial Involvement
1.3.4. Satellite Communication Regulations are Shaped by Numerous Public and Private Encroachments into the Concept of Common Heritage of Mankind
1.3.4.1. The Development of a "mare nostrum" Attitude by Certain Space-faring Nations
1.3.4.2. The Resulting Reply of the "Me Too" Nations
1.3.5. Space Law has Ambiguous Litigation Provisions
1.3.5.1. Liability for Specific Space Treaties Situations
1.3.5.2. Space Liability is Weakened by Several Omissions
1.3.5.3. The Lack of Success of Standard National Litigation Procedures
1.3.5.4. Arbitration is a Preferred Way
Chapter II Satellite Communications are the Object of Incomplete International Regulations Inherited from the Past
2.1. A GLOBAL VIEW OF INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS BY SATELLITES
2.1.1. A Wide Array of Varied Services
2.1.2. The Use of Radio Frequencies
2.2. THE INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)
2.2.1. Its Institutional Structure
2.2.2. Its Role as a Coordinator and as a Regulator
2.2.3. Legal Consequences of the Use of the Frequency Spectrum by Outer Space Systems
2.2.3.1. On the Geostationary Orbit (GSO)
2.2.3.2. A Regulatary Vacuum for Non-GSO Orbits
2.2.4. ITU Rules Put into Practice: The Case of Tongasat and of GSO "Paper Satellites
2.2.4.1. A Tiny Country Holds an Inflated Orbital Position and Opens a Rental Business
2.2.4.2. The Lack of Precision of the Radio Regulations Favours Orbital Congestion
2.2.4.3. Proposals for the Amendment of ITU Regulations on Orbital Positions Allocation
2.2.5. The 1989-1994 Institutional Reform of ITU
2.2.5.1. The 13th Plenipotentiary Conference, Nice 1989, and Its 1992 Geneva Follow-up
2.2.5.2. The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC-92)
2.2.5.3. The 14th Plenipotentiary Conference, Kyoto, 1994
2.3. THE RECENT TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS UNDERLINE THE INADEQUACY OF ESTABLISHED INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION REGULATIONS
2.3.1. The 1995 World Radio Conference (WRC-95) and the LEO Frenzy
2.3.1.1. Telecom '95: An Industry Gathering
2.3.1.2. Objectives of WRC-95
2.3.1.3. Achievements of WRC-95
2.3.2. The 1996 First World Telecommunications Policy Forum
2.3.3. The Legal/Regulatory Issues to be Discussed at WRC-97
2.3.4. International Telecommunication Regulations and the Global Information Infrastructure
2.4. STANDARDS SETTING ORGANISATIONS
2.4.1. Regular Standards Setting International Organisations
2.4.1.1. International Standards
2.4.1.2. European Standards
2.4.1.3. The 1996 World Telecommunications
2.4.2. The Counterweight Impact of Some National Regulatory Authorities
Chapter III Satellite Communication Flows are an Instrument of Global Trade
3.1. WORLD TRADE NEGOTIATIONS: THE GATS AND THE NEW WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION IN REFERENCE TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
3.1.1. The Structure of the Legal Documents Concluding the Uruguay Round on Multilateral Trade Negotiations
3.1.2. The GATS Agreement: Annex IB to the WTO Agreement
3.1.3. The Annexes to the GATS Agreement
3.1.3.1. Telecommunications: Objectives, Scope and Definitions
3.1.3.2. "Access to" and "Use" of Public Telecommunications Transport Networks and Services
3.1.3.3. Comments on the Legal Issues at Bay
3.1.3.4. The Annex on Air Transport Services
3.1.4. Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs): Annex 1C to the WTO Agreement
3.1.4.1. General Considerations on TRIPs
3.1.4.2. Standards Concerning the Availability, Scope and Use of Rights
3.1.4.3. Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights
3.1.4.4. Acquisition and Maintenance of Intellectual Property Rights and Related inter partes Procedures
3.1.5. The Negotiating Process on Telecommunications Regulatory Issues
3.1.5.1. The April 1996 Deadline
3.1.5.2. The February 1997 Agreement
3.2. THE GROUP OF SEVEN MOST INDUSTRIALISED NATIONS
Chapter IV Satellite Communications Regulations are also Harmonised by Other International Organisations, as Illustrated by Air Navigation Satellite Systems
4.1. CIVIL AVIATION AND SATELLITE AIR NAVIGATION SYSTEMS PRIOR TC THE FUTURE GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)
4.1.1. The Technical Dimension of the System
4.1.2. The Practical Problems to be Solved by an international System
4.1.3. Several Articles of the Chicago Convention Openly Welcome the Adoption of New Air Navigation Systems
4.1.4. Adjustments Need to be Made to the Sovereignty Principle
4.2. INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS RECOMMENDED BY THE FANS (II) COMMITTEE
4.2.1. The Domains of the Institutional Arrangements
4.2.2. The Implementation Options for the Future GNSS
4.2.3. The Position of ICAO's Legal Committee
4.2.3.1. The Committee Underlined Six Principles
4.2.3.2. The Committee Found a Consensus Around Three Measures of Action
4.3. THE LIABILITY OF GNSS PROVIDERS UNDER SPACE LAW
4.3.1. The Liability of the US Government for a GPS-originated Malfunction
4.3.1.1. Liability of the US Government Under US Laws and Statutes
4.3.1.2. Liability of the US Government Under International Law
4.3.2. The Liability of Non-US Government Bodies
4.4. THE ALLOCATION OF SATELLITE AIR NAVIGATION FREQUENCIES (WRC 95)
4.4.1. The Simplification of Radio Regulations
4.4.2. The Allocation of Air Navigation Frequencies (WRC-95)
4.5. ICAO's INTERESTS FOR METEOROLOGICAL SATELLITE SYSTEMS
Chapter V International Satellite Operators and their Regulatory Regime
5.1. PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL SATELLITE OPERATORS
5.1.1. INTELSAT
5.1.1.1. General Profile
5.1.1.2. INTELSAT Exercises a Weak Control over Separate Satellite Systems
5.1.1.3. Growing Conflicting Interests with INTELSAT
5.1.1.4. The Restructuring of INTELSAT
5.1.2. INMARSAT
5.1.2.1. General Profile
5.1.2.2. The INMARSAT Legal Structure and Powers
5.1.2.3. The Evolution of the INMARSAT Structure
5.2. THE APPARITION OF A NEW BREED: THE PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL SATELLITE CONSORTIA
5.2.1. These Consortia are Corporations with International Activities
5.2.2. Private International Satellite Systems Operators
5.2.2.1. Identifying the "Private International Satellite Operator
5.2.2.2. There are no International Private Satellite Operators
5.2.3. Private International Satellite Networks
5.2.3.1. The Upgrading of Standard Communication Networks
5.2.3.2. VSATs: A Brand New Type of Satellite Service
Conclusion to Part I
Bibliography for Part I
Part II North American Satellite Communication Regulations: The Making of a (Planetary) Lex Americana Juris Spatialis
Chapter VI US Satellite Communication Regulations
6.1. THE EVOLUTION OF THE US SATELLITE MARKET
6.1.1. Deregulation and its Evolution up to the 1990s
6.1.2. The Acceleration of the Evolution of the US Market in the Early 1990s
6.1.2.1. New Services Requesting New FCC Authorisations: A Constant and Increasing Pressure from the Industry on the Regulators
6.1.2.2. FCC's Decisions in Response to Industry Pressure
6.1.3. The Impact of Deregulation on Satellite Communication Operators
6.1.4. The Telecommunications Act of 1996
6.1.4.1. Deregulation is Emphasised
6.1.4.2. It Equates Satellite Operators to Common Carriers
6.1.4.3. It May Force Indiscriminate Access to Mobile Services
6.1.4.4. It Encourages Advanced Telecommunication Incentives
6.2. THE REGULATION OF THE US SPECTRUM OF FREQUENCIES
6.2.1. The Sharing of Responsibilities among US Regulatory Bodies
6.2.2. The Regulation of the Use of the US Spectrum by the Government Resides with the NTIA
6.2.2.1. The Office of International Affairs
6.2.2.2. The Office of Spectrum Management
6.2.3. The Regulation of the Non-Government Uses of the US Spectrum Resides with the FCC
6.3. THE ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL BUREAU
6.3.1. Pending Regulatory Issues Facing the FCC before its 1995 Reorganisation
6.3.1.1. International Issues
6.3.1.2. Domestic Issues
6.3.2. The Mandate of the Satellite and Radiocommunication Division
6.4. THE NEW SATELLITE REGULATIONS OF THE FCC
6.4.1. The Non-Voice, Non-Geostationary (NVNG) MSS Systems: A First Attempt at Regulating LEO MSS
6.4.2. The MSS Big-LEO Satellite Licensing Rules of 1994
6.4.2.1. This is a New Set of Rules
6.4.2.2. Allocating the US Orbit/Spectrum Resource: The Auction Issue
6.4.2.3. Coordination with Foreign Trade Partners
6.4.2.4. Coordination with the European Community
6.4.3. The 1995 Reform on the Entry of Foreign Telecommunications Carriers in the US
6.4.3.1. The Entry of Foreign Telecommunication Carriers into the US Market
6.4.3.2. The Sprint Corporation/France Telecom/Deutsche Telekom Case Study
6.4.4. DISCO 1: The FSSIDBSIMSS Licensing Rules of 1996
6.4.4.1. The Former FSS Licensing Policy
6.4.4.2. All US Systems may now offer Global Services
6.4.4.3. Financial Qualification Requirements for the FSS
6.4.4.4. Regulatory Qualifications for FSS
6.4.4.5. An Amended DBS Licensing Policy
6.4.4.6. An Amended MSS Licensing Policy
6.4.5. DISCO 2: The Proposed Entry of Foreign-licensed Operators in the US Satellite Market
6.4.5.1. The Status of Foreign Satellite Operators in the US
6.4.5.2. The Case of Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs)
6.4.5.3. Receive-Only Earth Stations
6.4.6. Proposed Rules for the Licensing of "Little LEOs" Satellite Systems
6.4.7. The Streamlining of the FCC Licensing Process
6.5. ORHER US REGULATIONS AND POLICY GOALS WHICH IMPACT ON SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
6.5.1. The Aborted 1994 Omnibus Export Administration Act
6.5.2. The 1996 Commercial Communication Satellites Export Rules
6.5.2.1. The Simplification of Export Administration Regulations
6.5.2.2. The EAR Satellites Interim Final Rule
6.5.2.3. The Inclusion of Civilian Satellites into the CCL
6.5.3. The US Government Position on GPS
6.5.4. The New US National Space Policy
6.5.4.1. The Redefinition of the Space Policy by the Executive Branch
6.5.4.2. The September 1996 National Space Policy
6.5.5. The Increasing Commercialisation of Space Ventures by Congress
6.5.5.1. The Total Commercialisation of the Three Main US Space Domains
6.5.5.2. The Reinforcement of Private Funding
6.5.6. The Global Information Infrastructure
6.5.6.1. Global Information Infrastructure Principles
6.5.6.2. Means and Applications of the GII
6.6. US SATELLITE SYSTEMS AND SERVICES OPERATORS
6.6.1. The US Commercial Satellite Corporation (COMSAT)
6.6.1.1. AUS Public Entity, Created by US Law and Privately Administered
6.6.1.2. COMSAT's Tendency to Expand in the Market
6.6.1.3. COMSAT was Granted New Powers by the FCC
6.6.1.4. COMSAT's Immunity has been Reiterated by US Courts
6.6.1.5. COMSAT's Participation to INTELSAT and INMARSAT
6.6.2. US Private Satellite Systems and Services Operators
6.6.2.1. This is a Recent Phenomenon
6.6.2.2. US GSO Fixed or Broadcasting Services Satellite Operators (FSS/DBS)
6.6.2.3. US LEO Mobile Services Satellite Operators (MSS)
6.6.2.4. US LEO Information Highway Satellite Operators: The Teledesic Case
6.6.2.5. US Private Satellite Networks Providers (VSATs)
6.7. THE US PARTICIPATION AT INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS FORA
6.7.1. The Reminiscence of WARC-1992
6.7.2. The US Participation at WRC-95
6.7.2.1. What the US Government and Operators were Looking for
6.7.2.2. What the US Delegation Obtained
6.7.3. What they are Looking for at WRC-97
6.7.4. The February 1997 WTO Agreement
6.8. AN APPRAISAL OF US SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS
6.8.1. The Items of the On-going Transatlantic Dispute
6.8.1.1. Unilateralism in US Trade Legislation
6.8.1.2. The Enforcement of US Legislation Outside US Territory
6.8.1.3. Public Procurement
6.8.1.4. The Protection of Intellectual Property
6.8.1.5. The US Barriers and the Information Society
6.8.2. A Need for Authentic International Cooperation
6.8.2.1. The US Must Emerge from Protective Regulatory Measures
6.8.2.2. Market Access Philosophy v. Benefits and Interest of All Countries
Chapter VII A North American Perspective on Regulations Impacting on Global Satellite Communications
7.1. CANADA AND MEXICO, THE TWO BALANCING POWERS OF THE US WITHIN NAFTA
7.1.1. Canada as a Space Communications Nation
7.1.1.1. The Canadian Space Policy
7.1.1.2. The Canadian Space Agency
7.1.2. The Canadian Satellite Communications Legal Framework
7.1.2.1. The 1985 Radiocommunication Act
7.1.2.2. The 1991 Broadcasting Act
7.1.2.3. The 1993 Telecommunications Act
7.1.3. Canadian Satellite Communications Regulations
7.1.3.1. The Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations
7.1.3.2. The Use of Canadian Geostationary Orbit Slots
7.1.3.3. The Licensing of Space Stations in Canada
7.1.3.4. Canada's Participation to ITU Conferences
7.1.3.5. The Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC)
7.1.4. Canadian Communications Satellite Operators
7.1.4.1. Telesat is a Continental America Satellite Operator
7.1.4.2. Teleglobe is an Intercontinental Telecommunications Carrier
7.1.4.3. The Outcome of the February 1997 WTO Agreement for Canada
7.1.5. Mexico is a Fast Developing Satellite-operating Nation
7.1.5.1. Deregulation. VSATs and the Satellite TV Frenzy in Mexico
7.1.5.2. International Bilateral Satellite Agreements with Mexico
7.1.5.3. The New US-Mexico Agreement of 1996
7.2. THE IMPACT OF NAFTA PROVISIONS ON NORTH AMERICAN SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
7.2.1. Genesis of the NAFTA Agreement: The 1987 Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (CFTA)
7.2.2. NAFTA's Telecommunications and Generic Provisions
7.2.2.1. Telecommunications
7.2.2.2. Cross-Border Trade In Services
7.2.2.3. Competition Policy, Monopolies and State Enterprises
7.2.2.4. Intellectual Property
7.2.2.5. Exceptions
7.2.2.6. Annexes: Reservations and Exceptions
7.2.3. NAFTA 's Satellite Communication Provisions in Reference to Other Trade Agreements
Conclusion to Part II
Bibliography for Part II
Part III Western Europe Regulations on Satellite Communications: The Alternate Rule-making Process for Space-based Communications
Chapter VIII The Regulation of Satellite Communications in the European Union: The Uneasy Weight of Central Regulation
8.1. THE MAZE OF EUROPEAN REGULATORY AUTHORITIES
8.1.1. Authorities having a General Legislative and Regulatory Power
8.1.1.1. The Executive Power of the Community: The Council and the Commission
8.1.1.2. The European Parliament
8.1.1.3. The Other Organs of the European Union
8.1.1.4. The Community Legal Frame at Work
8.1.2. The Issue of the Legal Personality of the European Union
8.1.2.1. The Autonomy of the Legal Order of the European Union
8.1.2.2. The International Personality of the European Union
8.1.3. Authorities having a Special Regulatory Competence in Telecommunication Matters
8.1.3.1. The Conférence Européenne des Postes et Télécommunications (CEPT)
8.1.3.2. The European Radiocommunications Committee (ERC)
8.1.3.3. The European Committee for Telecommunications Regulatory Affairs (ECTRA)
8.1.3.4. The European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI)
8.1.4. The European Space Agency
8.1.4.1. ESA is a European Space Policy Contributor
8.1.4.2. ESA is also a Multi-government Programme Manager
8.1.4.3. The Regulatory Functions within ESA
8.1.5. Other European Institutions which Impact on Satellite Communications
8.1.5.1. Eurocontrol
8.1.5.2. The Union de l'Europe Occidentale (UEO/WEU)
8.1.6. Towards a European FCC?
8.2. THE EUROPEAN POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE 1990s
8.2.1. Genesis of the European Telecommunications Policy in the 1980s
8.2.1.1. The Awakening into Consciousness
8.2.1.2. First Studies. Programmes and Court Decisions
8.2.1.3. The Extension of the Fields of Competence of the Commission
8.2.1.4. The Political Shake-up
8.2.2. The Green Paper on Telecommunications of 1987
8.2.2.1. Its Objectives
8.2.2.2. Its Proposals
8.2.3. The Green Paper on Satellite Communications of 1990
8.2.3.1. It Extended the Telecommunications Policy Principles
8.2.3.2. It Identified Four Lines of Action
8.2.3.3. It Set the Right to Use and/or Provide Satellite Services
8.2.3.4. It Reasserted Several Principles for the Future Treatment of the Space Segment
8.2.3.5. The Conclusions of the Green Paper
8.2.4. The Guidelines on the Application of EEC Competition Rules in the Telecommunications Sector, September 1991
8.2.4.1. Anticompetitive Rules and Telecommunication Operators
8.2.4.2. Impact of International Conventions
8.2.5. The Maastricht Treaty on the European Union, February 1992
8.2.5.1. Provisions of the Treaty to be Read in Relation to Space Matters
8.2.5.2. A New Industrial Policy Environment for Space Communications (Art. 129-b-c-d)
8.2.6. The EU Space Policy
8.2.6.1. A Slow Evolution
8.2.6.2. A Recent Acceleration
8.2.7. The European Contribution to the GNSS
8.2.8. The EU Information Society Response to the US Global Information Infrastructure
8.2.8.1. The Fourth Report on the Electronic Information Market
8.2.8.2. The Commission Action Plan on the Information Society
8.2.8.3. The Fifth Commission Report on the Information Market: The European Alternative
8.2.8.4. Other Commission Reports Related to the Information Society
8.2.8.5. From Corfu to Dublin
8.3. THE EUROPEAN LEGAL FRAMEWORK ON SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
8.3.1. The Status of EU Harmonising Regulations on Satellite Communications
8.3.1.1. The Open Network Provision (ONP)
8.3.1.2. The Protection of the Form and the Content of Satellite Communications
8.3.1.3. The Standardisation of Satellite Communications Equipment
8.3.1.4. The Mutual Recognition of Licences for Satellite Services
8.3.1.5. The Provision of Satellite Personal Communication Services (S-PCS)
8.3.1.6. The Provisions on Air Navigation Systems Services
8.3.2. The Status of EU Liberalising Regulations in Reference to Satellite Communications
8.3.2.1. The Separation of Regulatory and Operational Functions
8.3.2.2. The Full Commercial Freedom of Space Segment Capacity Providers
8.3.2.3. The Liberalisation of Telecommunication Infrastructures
8.3.2.4. The Provision of and the Access to Space Segment Capacity
8.3.3. Community Decisions Relative to Competition between Satellite Operators
8.3.3.1. The Review of Service Arrangements
8.3.3.2. The Review of Acquisition Transactions
8.3.3.3. The Review Process of Strategic Alliances
8.3.4. The Periodical Review of the Application of Community Law and the Advancement of the Single Market
8.3.4.1. Assessing the State of Completion of the Single Market
8.3.4.2. Assessing the Application of Community Law
8.4. WESTERN EUROPEAN INTERNATIONAL SATELLITE OPERATORS
8.4.1. Public European Regional Satellite Operators: EUTELSAT and EUMETSAT
8.4.1.1. EUTELSAT's General Profile
8.4.1.2. EUTELSAT's Institutional Arrangements
8.4.1.3. The Recent Evolution of EUTELSAT
8.4.1.4. EUMETSAT
8.4.2. Private European Regional Satellite Operators
8.4.2.1. The Status of Société Européenne de Satellites (SES)
8.4.2.2. SES and the Orbit/Spectrum Resource
8.4.2.3. ICO Global Communications Ltd.
8.4.2.4. Other European Regional Private Entities
8.5. AN APPRAISAL OF EUROPEAN SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS
8.5.1. A Satellite Industry Appraisal
8.5.2. A Community Appraisal of the Communications Sector among the Union: the Bangemann Report, June 1994
8.5.3. A North-American Appraisal
8.5.3.1. By the United States
8.5.3.2. By Canada
8.5.4. Is there Room for Non-American Regional Satellite Regulations?
8.5.4.1. Commerce Issues vs. Culture Issues
8.5.4.2. What is at Stake: The Economic Bypass of Western Europe
8.6. EUROPEAN SATELLITE COMMUNICATION ISSUES REQUESTING ACTION WITH NON-EUROPEAN AUTHORITIES
8.6.1. Coordination with US Regulatory Authorities
8.6.2. Coordination with the World Trade Organisation
8.6.3. Coordination with the International Telecommunications Union
8.6.3.1. European Participation in WRC-95
8.6.3.2. European Participation in WTPF-I996
8.6.3.3. European Participation at WRC-97
8.6.4. Coordination with the International Civil Aviation Organisation
Chapter IX National European Satellite Communication Regulations: The Presence of Subsidiary Regulations
9.1. DIVERGING POLICY APPROACHES WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION
9.1.1. In the Interest of the Public and/or Universal Service and/or Service Public?
9.1.2. Deregulation v. Liberalisation
9.2. GREAT BRITAIN OPENED THE WAY TO DEREGULATION IN EUROPE
9.2.1. Britain in Space Communications
9.2.1.1. The British Outer Space Act, 1986
9.2.1.2. The British Space Policy and Activities
9.2.2. The Regulation of the UK Spectrum of Frequencies
9.2.2.1. The Legislative Framework
9.2.2.2. A Small Population of Satellite Services Licensees
9.2.3. The Privatisation of the UK Telecommunications Industry
9.2.3.1. A Clear, Deliberate and Widespread Intention to Privatise
9.2.3.2. The Office of Telecommunications (OFTEL)
9.2.3.3. The Status of British Telecom and of PTOs
9.2.4. An Appraisal of UK Deregulation
9.2.4.1. A Slow Privatisation of the Use of the Spectrum
9.2.4.2. The Future Use of the UK Radio Spectrum
9.2.4.3. The Evolution of the Role of the Telecommunication Carriers
9.3. FRANCE TOOK THE LIBERALISATION PATH
9.3.1. Prior to the 1990s
9.3.1.1. From an Antiquated Infrastructure to Colbertisme High Tech
9.3.1.2. Access to the French Spectrum of Frequencies in the 1980s
9.3.2. The 1990 First Wave of Reforms
9.3.2.1. Splitting the Public Monopoly, July 1990
9.3.2.2. Reorganising the Code of Posts and Telecommunications
9.3.3. The 1996 Second Wave of Reforms
9.3.3.1. The Experimentations Law of April 1996
9.3.3.2. The Telecommunications Law of July 1996
9.3.4. An Appraisal of the French Telecommunications Regulatory Environment
9.3.5. French Satellite Operators
9.3.5.1. CNES, the Space Agency
9.3.5.2. France Telecom (FT)
9.3.5.3. Other French Satellite Services Operators or Networks Managers
9.4. THE FOUR-NATIONS MARCH 1993 MOU ON THE MUTUAL RECOGNITION OF SATELLITE LICENCES
Conclusion to Part III
Bibliography for Part III
Part IV In Conclusion, a Sketch of Requirements for the Future Regulations of Satellite Communications in the Glass House
I. AN AUDIT OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS REGULATIONS
A. On the International Stage
B. On the Regional Stage
II. ENDEAVOURING SEVERAL SUGGESTIONS
REQUIREMENT 1: THE NEED FOR AN EFFECTIVE COORDINATION OF THE VARIOUS FORMS OF SPACE ACTIVITIES REGULATIONS, INCLUDING SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
A. A World Space Organisation for the Coordination of Space Activities: Global Space Activities Regulation
B. A Legal Regime for Near-Earth Orbital Activities: The Specific Legal Definition and Protection of Commercial Mass Activities in the Suburbs of the Earth
C. Effective Coordination of Low Orbital Positions and Spectrum Frequencies: A World Telecommunications Commission to Ensure an Effective and Efficient Coordination of All Types of Orbit and Spectrum Use
REQUIREMENT 2: THE NEED FOR A FAIRER DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONS THROUGH THE REDISTRIBUTION OF ECONOMIC BENEFITS AND INTERESTS TO ALL COUNTRIES BROUGHT BY SPACE ACTIVITIES REQUIRES A REFORMULATION OF SPACE LAW PRINCIPLES AND OF THEIR APPLIED REGULATIONS
A. World Dominance by One Nation Imperils World Peace: In the Field of Satellite Communications Regulations, as in Other Domains of Space Activities, a Virtually Dominating and de facta Autanomous National Regulatory Institution Can only Strengthen Regional Competition and Exacerbate Useless International Political Tensions
B. The Evolution of Outer Space Law Should Not Equate to the de facta Acceptance of New US-originated International Customary Space Law/Regulations Practices
C. Satellite Communications Regulations Illustrate the Need to Conduct a Profound Reform of the Outer Space Legal Operating Framework
Epilogue An Update as of 1 July 2000
1. INTERNATIONAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS AND INSTITUTIONAL EVENTS
1.1. INSTITUTIONAL EVENTS AT THE ITU
1.1.1. The Implications of Telecommunications Convergence: The Sixth Regulatory Colloquium and the First Telecom Interactive Conference
1.1.2. The Memorandum of Understanding on Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite (GMPCS-MoU)
1.1.3. The Future 3G Systems: IMT-2000
1.1.4. Further Work on GII Standardisation
1.1.5. The Conclusion of WRC-97
1.1.5.1. Non-GSO Networks Using Ku-band and Ka-band
1.1.5.2. The "Paper Satellites" Issue
1.1.5.3. Little LEOs
1.1.5.4. Other Issues
1.1.6. The Second World Telecommunications Policy Forum
1.1.7. The Minneapolis Plenipotentiary Conference
1.1.8. Reforming the ITU
1.1.9. The WRC-2000 Conference, May-June 2000, Istambul (Turkey)
1.2. INSTITUTIONAL EVENTS AT THE WTO
1.2.1. Satellite Communications and Services are Now Monitored by the TPRB of the WTO
1.2.2. The Evaluation of the EU's Trade Policies by the WTO's Trade Policy Review Body, Including Telecommunications
1.2.3. The Evaluation of the US's Trade Policies by the WTO's Trade Policy Review Body Including Telecommunications
1.3. NON-INSTITUTIONAL EVENTS: THE ISOs, THE PRIVATE SATELLITE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT AND THE GROWING IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION
1.3.1. The Issue of the Privatisation of the ISOs, Intelsat and Inmarsat
1.3.1.1. Intelsat
1.3.1.2. Inmarsat
1.3.2. The Issue of the New Global Telecommunication Operators and Aerospace Manufacturers and their Impact on the Evolution of the Legal and Regulatory Framework
1.3.2.1. The New Telcos Alliances
1.3.2.2. This Trend is also Affecting international Private Satellite Operating Ventures
1.3.3. The Impact of Globalisation: New Actors on the International Communications Stage and New Legal Practices that Tend to Push for an Evolution of "Standard" Space Law
1.3.3.1. International De Facto Outer Space Governance by Non-governmental Organisations: NGOs that Come into Contact with Space Communications
1.3.3.2. New Legal Practices that Tend to Push for an Evolution of "Standard" Space Law
1.3.3.3. Finally, New Practices that are of Direct Outer Space Concern and that are Neither Legal, Nor Illegal
2. UNITED STATES SATELLITE COMMUNICATION REGULATIONS
2.1. ACTIONS BY CONGRESS AND BY THE US GOVERNMENT
2.1.1. The International Space Station Agreement
2.1.2. The Commercial Space Act of 1998
2.1.2.1. It Reinforces the 1996 Presidential Declaration on GPS
2.1.2.2. Other Satellite Communication Issues
2.1.3. The ORBIT Act, March 2000
2.1.4. "Stop and Go" Measures Regarding the Control of US Satellite Exports
2.2. ACTIONS BY THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION (FCC)
2.2.1. The Entry of Foreign Entities into the US Market
2.2.1.1. Foreign Telecommunications Carriers
2.2.1.2. Foreign Satellites to Operate in the US
2.2.2. Several New Measures Regarding Satellite Services
2.2.2.1. A Report and Order Relative to the FSS and the MSS
2.2.2.2. Rules and Procedures for the 2nd Processing Round of NV-NG-MSS
2.2.2.3. The Simplification of DBS Rules and Their Consolidation with DTH-FSS Rules
2.2.2.4. An Interim Procedure for GMPCS Equipment
2.2.2.5. The DISCO II First Order on Reconsideration
2.2.3. At the Level of Operating Systems
2.2.3.1. The Aftermath of the Teledesic Authorisation: Ka-band Mass Data Transfer Satellite Systems
2.2.3.2. The Fate of Already Authorised Ventures
2.2.3.3. Several New Authorisations were Delivered by the FCC
2.2.4. The Status of Comsat and the Access to Intelsat's Space Segment
2.2.4.1. The Status of COMSAT as a Carrier
2.2.4.2. The Direct Access to Intelsat's Space Segment
2.2.5. The FCC and WRC-2000
2.2.5.1. The FCC Identified Several Guiding Principles for US Participation
2.2.5.2. Several Important Issues were Identified to be Discussed within Working Groups
2.2.5.3. WRC-2000 Outcome for US Interests
2.3. THE US AEROSPACE AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS INDUSTRY GATHERS ITS FORCES, REACHING UNPRECEDENTED MARKET POWER
2.4. AN EXACERBATED COMMERCIALISATION OF OUTER SPACE ACTIVITIES MAY INEVITABLY LEAD TO ITS GRADUAL MILITARISATION
3. EUROPEAN UNION SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS REGULATIONS
3.1. THE FURTHERING OF THE EU CONSTRUCTION PROCESS, AS IT APPLIES TO SPACE AND COMMUNICATIONS
3.1.1. New Guidelines for Trans-European Telecommunications Networks
3.1.2. Evolution of the EU Legal and Policy Telecommunications Framework
3.1.2.1. The Pursuit of the Harmonisation of Technical Regulations on Satellite Services
3.1.2.2. Further Harmonisation of Communications Equipment
3.1.2.3. Further Liberalisation of Telecommunications Markets
3.1.2.4. The Coordinated Introduction of UMTS
3.1.2.5. Licences in the Held of Telecommunications Services
3.1.2.6. The Electronic Communications Policy of the EU
3.1.3. The State of Implementation of the EU Telecom Directives
3.1.4. The EU Action Plan on Satellite Communications
3.1.5. The EU Green Paper on Radio Spectrum Policy
3.1.6. The EU Space Policy
3.1.7. The EU Communications Telecommunications Policy Reviewing Process of Early 2000
3.2. THE PARTICIPATION OF THE EU TO THE INTERNATIONAL DEREGULATION PROCESS
3.2.1. The Position of EU Authorities Facing the ITU-WRC Process
3.2.2. The Participation of the EU to WRC-2000
3.2.3. The EU GNSS Policy and International Civil Aviation
3.2.4. Community Competition and Trade Policy
3.3. EUROPEAN SATELLITE OPERATORS
3.3.1. Government Controlled Satellite Operators
3.3.1.1. Eutelsat
3.3.1.2. Eutelsat as a Space Segment Warden
3.3.1.3. The Eutelsat/SES Orbital Slot Dispute
3.3.2. SES Astra
3.4. THE CONCENTRATION TREND ALSO AFFECTS EUROPEAN SATELLITE MANUFACTURERS AND TELECOMMUNICATION SERVICES OPERATORS AND, By AND LARGE, THE WHOLE EUROPEAN AEROSPACE AND DEFENCE INDUSTRY
3.5. THE NEED FOR AN INTERNATIONAL CONCERTED APPROACH FOR THE FUTURE INTENSIVE UTILISATION OF OUTER SPACE BY THE GLOBAL INFORMATION SOCIETY
3.5.1. Concertation is the Only Feasible Avenue in Order to Accommodate the Necessary Evolution of the Original Legal Setting of Outer Space Activities
3.5.2. A Trans-Atlantic Cooperation, Particularly in Reference to Standards for Third Generation Mobile Services
Appendix
1. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
2. THE SPECTRUM OF RADIO FREQUENCIES
3. ORBITAL AND TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS
4. THE LICENCING PROCESS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES
5. THE LICENCING PROCESS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS IN CANADA
6. THE LICENCING PROCESS OF SATELLITE SYSTEMS IN THE EU
INDEX
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