The International Law of the Sea

1 The History and Sources of the International Law of the Sea
I. Introduction
II. Historical Development of the International Law of the Sea
A. The Grotian View of the Oceans
B. The Freedom of the Sea and Territorial Sea Claims
C. 1930 Hague Conference
D. Truman Proclamation
III. Work of the International Law Commission
IV. The First United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea and the Geneva Conventions
V. The Second United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
VI. The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea
A. Claims to New Maritime Zones in the 1960s
B. The Regime of the Deep Seabed
C. UNCLOS III Conference Dynamics
D. The United States Position on Common Heritage and the Deep Seabed
VII. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
A. Core Provisions
B. Entry into Force
C. 1994 Implementing Agreement
D. 1995 Fish Stocks Agreement
VIII. Institutional Frameworks
IX. Sources of the International Law of the Sea
A. Customary International Law
B. Treaties and Conventions
C. Unilateral Declarations
D. Subsidiary Sources of Law
E. Soft Law
X. Challenges for the International Law of the Sea
A. Climate Change
B. Marine Environmental Security
C. Creeping Jurisdiction
XI. Review and Reform of the International Law of the Sea
XII. Further Reading
2 Coastal Waters
I. Introduction
II. History
III. Baselines
A. The Anglo-Norwegian Fisheries Case
B. International Law Commission
i. International Law Commission Draft Articles
C. UNCLOS I
D. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
E. Post-UNCLOS I State Practice
F. LOSC
IV. Key Issues in the Delimitation of Coastal Waters
A. Low-water
B. Straight Baselines
C. Low-tide Elevation
D. Juridical Bays
E. Historic Bays
F. Contemporary State Practice
V. Internal Waters
A. Views of the ILC
B. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
C. LOSC
D. State Practice
i. Territorial Sovereign Rights and Internal Waters
ii. Port Access
iii. Jurisdiction over Foreign Ships in Port
VI. Further Reading
3 Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
I. Introduction
II. Territorial Sea in Customary International Law
III. Codification of the Territorial Sea
A. The Views of the International Associations
B. International Law Commission
C. UNCLOS I
D. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
E. UNCLOS II
F. State Practice
IV. UNCLOS III and the LOSC
V. Contemporary Territorial Sea in State Practice
A. Breadth of the Territorial Sea
B. Sovereignty and Jurisdiction
C. Innocent and Transit Passage
VI. Contiguous Zone
A. ILC
B. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention
C. UNCLOS III and the LOSC
D. State Practice
VII. Further Reading
4 The Exclusive Economic Zone
I. Introduction
II. The Concept of the EEZ
III. Breadth of the EEZ and its Relationship with Other Maritime Zones
IV. Coastal State Rights and Obligations in the EEZ
A. Sovereign Rights
i. Living Resources
ii. Non-Living Resources
B. Jurisdictional Rights
i. Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures
ii. Marine Scientific Research
iii. Marine Environmental Protection
V. Rights and Duties of Other States in the EEZ
A. Navigation and Overflight
i. Environmental Security
ii. Military Security
B. Submarine Cables and Pipelines
VI. Future Developments
VII. Further Reading
5 The Continental Shelf
I. Introduction
II. The Truman Proclamation
III. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Convention
A. Work of the International Law Commission
B. The Convention on the Continental Shelf
C. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases
IV. UNCLOS III
V. LOSC
A. Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf
B. Rights and Duties of Coastal and Other States
C. Relationship with the EEZ Regime
VI. Further Reading
6 The Deep Seabed
I. Introduction
II. The Deep Seabed: Environment and Resources
III. Early Debates: Sedentary Fisheries and the Deep Seabed
IV. The Moratorium Resolution and Principles Resolution
V. UNCLOS III
A. Reciprocating States Regime
VI. The LOSC and 1994 Agreement
A. The Main Revisions in the 1994 Agreement
VII. The International Seabed Authority and the Seabed Mining System
A. The ISBA
i. The Assembly
ii. The Council
iii. Recent Activities of the ISBA and the Mining Code
B. Main Elements of the Deep Seabed Mining Regime
VIII. Further Reading
7 High Seas
I. Introduction
A. The High Seas as a Managed Common Area
II. Historical Development of the High Seas
A. Pre-Grotian Freedoms of the High Seas
B. Grotian Vision of the High Seas
C. High Seas in Customary International Law
i. Jurisdiction over Vessels on the High Seas
III. Codification of the High Seas Regime
A. Pre-Geneva Codifications
B. Work of the ILC
C. UNCLOS I
D. UNCLOS III
IV. The LOSC and the High Seas
A. Freedom of the High Seas
i. Freedom of Navigation
ii. Freedom of Overflight
iii. Freedom to Lay Submarine Cables and Pipelines
iv. Freedom to Construct Artificial Islands and other Installations
v. Freedom of Fishing
vi. Freedom of Scientific Research
B. Shipping
i. Nationality of Ships
ii. Duties of the Flag State
iii. Immunities
iv. Collisions
v. Assistance to Persons at Sea
C. Prohibitions
i. Piracy
ii. Slavery
iii. Drug Trafficking
iv. Unauthorised Broadcasting
D. Enforcement
E. Conservation and Management of Living Resources
F. Relationship with Other Maritime Zones
V. Further Reading
8 Archipelagic States
I. Archipelagos and International Law
II. Early Codifications
III. UNCLOS I
IV. The Indonesian and Philippines Claims
A. Indonesia
B. The Philippines
V. UNCLOS III
VI. The LOSC and Archipelagic States
A. Archipelagic States
B. Archipelagic Baselines
C. The Legal Status of Archipelagic Waters
D. Archipelagic State Practice
i. Proclaimed Archipelagic States
ii. Archipelagic State Rights over Archipelagic Waters
VII. Further Reading
9 Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States
I. Introduction
II. Landlocked States and Access to the Sea
A. Early Developments
B. UNCLOS I
C. Post-UNCLOS I Developments
D. The LOSC
III. Landlocked States and Rights of Navigation
IV. Landlocked and Geographically Disadvantaged States and Marine Resources
A. Living Resources of the EEZ
B. Living Resources of the High Seas
C. Mineral Resources of the Area
D. Marine Scientific Research and Transfer of Marine Technology
V. Further Reading
10 Navigational Rights and Freedoms
I. Freedom of the Seas and Navigational Rights and Freedoms
A. Traditional Interests
B. Contemporary Interests
II. Customary International Law Prior to UNCLOS I
A. Early State Practice
B. The Corfu Channel Case
III. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Conventions
A. The Work of the International Law Commission
B. UNCLOS I
IV. UNCLOS III and the LOSC
V. Territorial Sea
A. Coastal State Rights in the Territorial Sea
B. The Right of Innocent Passage
C. Coastal State Rights and Duties Regarding Innocent Passage
i. Prevention of Passage
ii. Regulation of Passage
iii. Obligation not to Hamper Innocent Passage
iv. Sea Lanes and Traffic Separation Schemes
D. The Rights of Foreign Flagged Vessels
E. Warships
F. Nuclear Vessels and Vessels Carrying Hazardous Substances
G. Vessels in Distress
VI. High Seas
VII. Exclusive Economic Zone
VIII. Further Reading
11 International Straits and Archipelagic Navigation
I. Recognising Rights of Navigation through Straits
A. The Corfu Channel Case
B. The ILC and UNCLOS I
II. UNCLOS III Deliberations and the LOSC
A. The Straits Regime
B. The Archipelagic Regime
III. International Straits
A. Categories of Straits
B. The Regime of Transit Passage
i. The Act of Transit
ii. Duties of Ships and Aircraft in Transit
iii. Obligations of Strait States
iv. Regulation of Transit Passage
v. Enforcement of Strait State Laws and Regulations
C. Navigation in Specific International Straits
i. Turkish Straits
ii. Strait of Gibraltar
iii. Straits of Malacca and Singapore
iv. Torres Strait
IV. Archipelagic Navigation
A. Innocent Passage within Archipelagic Waters
B. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage
i. Navigation in the 'Normal Mode'
ii. Navigation within Archipelagic Sea Lanes
iii. Designation of Archipelagic Sea Lanes
iv. Obligations while Undertaking Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage
v. Obligations of the Archipelagic State
C. State Practice Designating Archipelagic Sea Lanes
V. Further Reading
12 Military Uses of the Oceans
I. Introduction
II. Historical Overview
III. International Law and Naval Operations
A. Law of Naval Warfare
B. United Nations-Sanctioned Naval Operations
IV. Codification of the Law of the Sea
A. Work of the International Law Commission
B. UNCLOS I and the Geneva Conventions
C. UNCLOS III and the LOSC
V. Navigational Rights and Freedoms
A. Innocent Passage by Warships
B. Transit Passage by Warships
C. Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage by Warships
D. EEZ Navigation by Warships
i. Military Survey Activities
VI. Naval Operations at Sea
A. United Nations Sanctioned Interdictions
B. Proliferation Security Initiative
C. Weapons Testing and Military Manoeuvres
D. Demilitarised and Nuclear Free Zones
VII. Overflight by Military Aircraft
VIII. Further Reading
13 Marine Resource Management
I. Introduction
II. Non-Living Marine Resources
A. Resource Potential
B. Internal Waters and Territorial Sea
C. Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone
D. The High Seas and Deep Seabed
E. Joint Development
III. Living Resources
A. Fisheries and the 'Tragedy of the Commons'
B. Pre LOSC Developments
C. 1958 Geneva Conventions
D. LOSC Regime
i. Internal Waters, the Territorial Sea and Archipelagic Waters
ii. Exclusive Economic Zone
iii. Shared Stocks
iv. Continental Shelf
v. The High Seas
vi. Deep Seabed
E. Species-Specific Rules
i. Highly Migratory Species
ii. Marine Mammals
ii. Anadromous Species
iv. Catadromous Species
F. Post-LOSC Developments
i. High Seas Fishing
ii. Fish Stocks Agreement
IV. Further Reading
14 Marine Scientific Research
I. Introduction
II. Development of the Regime for Marine Scientific Research
A. Early History of Marine Scientific Research
B. Marine Scientific Research and North-South Tensions in the Post-WW II Period
C. The Pre-LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research
III. The LOSC Regime for Marine Scientific Research
A. General Provisions
B. Internal Waters, Archipelagic Waters and the Territorial Sea
C. Continental Shelf and Exclusive Economic Zone
i. Hydrographic Surveying
ii. Scientific Research Installations and Equipment
D. High Seas
E. Deep Seabed
IV. Marine Scientific Research under Other Regimes
V. Coastal State Legislation concerning Marine Scientific Research
VI. Future Developments
VII. Further Reading
15 Marine Environmental Protection
I. Introduction
II. Sources and Type of Marine Pollution
III. The Legal Framework: LOSC and Regional Treaties
A. LOSC
B. Regional Treaties
IV. Operational Vessel-Source Pollution
A. Operational and Accidental Vessel Pollution Distinguished
B. LOSC and the IMO
C. International Standards
D. The MARPOL Jurisdictional Framework
i. Flag States
ii. Port States
E. The LOSC Jurisdictional Framework
i. Flag States
ii. Port States
iii. Coastal States
iv. Enforcement Jurisdiction
V. Accidental Vessel-Source Pollution
A. Safety of Shipping
i. SOLAS
ii. Qualifications and Working Conditions for Seafarers
iii. Preventing Collisions at Sea
VI. Pollution Emergencies
A. Responding to Pollution Emergencies
B. Coastal State Rights of Intervention
C. The Role of Salvors
VII. Liability for Vessel-Source Pollution
A. State Responsibility
B. Civil Liability
i. Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
ii. 1992 Civil Liability Convention
iii. The 1992 Fund Convention
iv. Liability for Other Pollution Damage
VIII. Seabed Pollution
A. Territorial Sea, EEZ and Continental Shelf
IX. Dumping at Sea
A. 1972 London Convention
B. 1996 Protocol
C. Jurisdiction and Enforcement
D. Ship Scrapping and Recycling
E. Regional Agreements
X. Land-Based and Atmospheric Pollution
A. 1995 Global Programme of Action
XI. Further Reading
16 Delimitation of Maritime Boundaries
I. Introduction
A. Grisbadarna Arbitration
B. Influence of Boggs
II. Work of the International Law Commission
III. Codification of the Law
A. Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone
B. Convention on the Continental Shelf
IV. Early Cases
A. North Sea Continental Shelf Cases
B. Anglo-French Arbitration
V. LOSC
VI. The ICJ and Maritime Boundary Delimitation
VII. Principles of Maritime Boundary Delimitation
A. Delimitation Methodology
i. Territorial Sea
ii. EEZ/Continental Shelf/Single Maritime Boundary
B. Territorial Sea Delimitations
C. Equitable Solution/Equitable Result
D. Equidistance and Median Lines
E. Relevant and Special Circumstances
i. Special Circumstances
ii. Relevant Circumstances
iii. Islands
iv. Fishing
v. Oil Concessions
F. Single Maritime Boundaries
VIII. Maritime Boundary Delimitation by Agreement
A. Settled Maritime Boundaries
B. Joint Development Zones
IX. Further Reading
17 Maritime Regulation and Enforcement
I. Introduction
II. International Law Regarding Enforcement Powers at Sea
A. Hot Pursuit
i. Case Law
ii. State Practice
iii. Multilateral Hot Pursuit
B. Use of Force
i. LOSC and Use of Force
ii. General Principles Regarding the Use of Force at Sea During Peacetime
III. Enforcement Operations within Particular Maritime Zones
A. Internal Waters
B. Territorial Sea
i. Criminal Jurisdiction
ii. Civil Jurisdiction
iii. Territorial Sea of an International Strait
C. Archipelagic Waters
D. Contiguous Zone
E. EEZ
i. Matters Subject to EEZ Sovereign Rights
ii. Matters Subject to EEZ Jurisdiction
F. Continental Shelf
G. High Seas
IV. Specialist Regimes Relating to Maritime Regulation and Enforcement
A. Piracy
B. Maritime Terrorism and Related Unlawful Acts
C. Fisheries
D. Transnational Crime
V. Further Reading
18 Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea
I. Introduction
II. Dispute Settlement in International Law: General Mechanisms
III. Dispute Settlement in the Law of the Sea: Pre-LOSC Developments
A. ILC Draft Articles on the Law of the Sea
B. UNCLOS I
C. UNCLOS III
IV. Dispute Settlement under the LOSC
A. Jurisdictional Conditions
B. Compulsory Dispute Settlement
i. Applicable Law
ii. Provisional Measures
iii. Prompt Release
C. Jurisdictional Limitations and Exceptions
D. ITLOS
V. Further Reading
19 Oceans Governance
I. Introduction
II. The Concept of Oceans Governance
A. Government and Governance Distinguished
B. The Ecosystem Approach and Area-Based Management
C. Area-Based Tools for Marine Management
D. Transparent and Participatory Decision-Making Processes
E. Scientific and Other Cross-Disciplinary Influences
F. Normative Influences on Oceans Governance
III. The Global Legal Framework for Oceans Governance
IV. The Policy Framework for Oceans Governance
V. Norms and Principles of Oceans Governance
VI. Institutions for Oceans Governance
VII. Regional, Sub-regional and National Oceans Governance
A. UNEP Regional Seas Programme
B. European Union
C. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
VIII. Further Reading
Index