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Abhishek Raj, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Forest Product and Utilization, Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, India. He has published over 20 papers in scientific journals, 50 book chapters, and three books.
Manoj Kumar Jhariya, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya University, India. He has published 86 scientific papers, 14 books, 75 book chapters, and several extension articles. He is an editorial board member for several journals and a life member of numerous societies.
Arnab Banerjee, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya University, India. He has published 80 research papers in reputed national and international journals, 15 books, and 50 book chapters. He is a life member of the Academy of Environmental Biology.
Sharad Nema, PhD, is a professor and department head in the Department of Forestry and Wildlife at Saheed Mahendra Karma Vishwavidyalaya University, India. He has published more than 60 research papers, book chapters, books, and reports, and holds several prestigious and responsible administrative responsibilities at the university.
Kiran Bargali, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Botany, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, India. She has published over 100 research papers and two books with various reputed national and international publishers.
List of Editors xiii
List of Contributors xv
Preface xix
1 Land Degradation and Restoration: Implication and Management Perspective 1Abhishek Raj, Manoj Kumar Jhariya, Arnab Banerjee, Sharad Nema and Kiran Bargali
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Land Degradation in Developed and Developing World 3
1.3 Land Degradation Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 4
1.4 Land Degradation and Restoration: A Response Framework 6
1.5 Soil Erosion and Desertification: Problems and Challenges 6
1.6 Forest Degradation 7
1.7 Land Restoration 8
1.8 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Land through Afforestation Activities 8
1.9 Achieving Land Degradation Neutral (LDN) through Sustainable Land Use Management (SLM) 10
1.10 Sustainable Soil/Land Management: Challenge and Opportunities 14
1.11 Policy and Roadmap For Land Management and Sustainability 14
1.12 Conclusion 15
References 15
2 Land Resources and Its Degradation in Asia: Its Control and Management 23Liliwirianis N., Nurun Nadhirah Md. Isa and Mohd Nazip Suratman
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Types of Land Resources 25
2.3 Causes of Land Resources Degradation 26
2.3.1 Urbanization 26
2.3.2 Deforestation 27
2.3.3 Land Clearing 29
2.3.4 Security of Access 29
2.3.5 Overgrazing and Overharvesting 29
2.3.6 Pollution 30
2.3.7 Quarrying of Stone, Sand, Ore, and Minerals 30
2.3.8 Climate Change 30
2.3.9 Agricultural 31
2.4 Major Threats, Implications, and Effects 31
2.4.1 Economy 31
2.4.2 Food Sources 32
2.4.3 Loss of Biodiversity 32
2.5 Management of Land Resources 33
2.5.1 Management of Deforestation 33
2.5.2 Agricultural Intensification Management 35
2.5.3 Management of Overgrazing 35
2.5.4 Management of Irrigation 36
2.5.5 Management of Mining 36
2.5.6 Management of Inventory Data 36
2.6 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap against Land Degradation 37
2.7 Conclusion 39
References 39
3 Deforestation Activities in Ezekoro Forest: Implications for Climate Change Risks in Anambra State, Southeast Nigeria 47Joe-Ikechebelu Ngozi Nneka, Akanwa Angela Oyilieze, Akanwa Chimezie David, Okafor Kenebechukwu Jane, Dike Keyna, Idakwo Victor Iko-Ojo, Omoruyi Fredrick Aideniosa, Nkwocha Kelechi Friday, Enwereuzo, Angela Chinelo, Umeh, Uche Marian, Ogbuehi, Emmanuel Okwudili and Agu, Helen Obioma
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Concept of Environmental Justice and Indiscriminate Deforestation/Tree Loss 51
3.3 Study Area 53
3.4 Materials and Method 56
3.5 Results and Discussion 59
3.5.1 Sample Characteristics 59
3.5.2 Discussion 63
3.6 Conclusion 69
References 70
4 Land Degradation and Its Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 77Pawan Ekka, Subhashree Patra, Manjari Upreti, Gajendra Kumar, Amit Kumar and Purabi Saikia
4.1 Introduction 78
4.2 Land Degradation: Causes and Consequences 79
4.3 Land Degradation and Major Environmental Challenges 84
4.4 Restoration of Degraded Land 85
4.5 Sustainable Land Management 87
4.6 Recommendation and Future Research Prospects 90
4.7 Conclusions 90
References 91
5 The Vulnerability of Forest Resources to Climate Change 103Faezah Pardi, Hasya Hannani Ruziman and Mohd Nazip Suratman
5.1 Introduction 104
5.2 Causes of Climate Change 105
5.2.1 Land-Use Change 105
5.2.2 Deforestation 106
5.2.3 Emissions of Greenhouse Gases 108
5.2.4 Urbanization 109
5.2.5 Emissions of Pollutants 110
5.2.6 Agriculture 111
5.3 Climate Change Affecting Forest Ecosystems 112
5.4 The Migration of Tree Species 114
5.5 The Replacement of Native Species by Exotic Species 117
5.6 The Economic Loss in the Forest Products Industry 118
5.7 Policy Strategies and Future Roadmap against Forest Vulnerability to Climate Change 119
5.8 Conclusion 122
References 123
6 Impact of Continuous Cover Forestry on Forest Systems 133Ana Cristina Gonçalves
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Continuous Cover Forestry 136
6.3 Forest Management under Continuous Cover Forestry 143
6.4 Challenges and Future Outlook of Continuous Cover Forestry 148
6.5 Conclusions 150
Funding 151
References 151
7 Forest Landscape Restoration for Environmental Management 161Nur Nadiah Md Yusof, Siti Khairiyah Mohd Hatta, Siti Hasnah Kamarudin, Norashirene Mohamad Jamil, Siti Nurbaya Supardan and Mohd Nazip Suratman
7.1 Introduction 162
7.2 Forest Landscape Restoration 164
7.3 Types of FLR 165
7.3.1 Forest Land 165
7.3.2 Agricultural Land 166
7.4 Benefits of FLR on the Environment/Ecosystem 167
7.4.1 Healthy, Resilient and Productive Ecosystems 168
7.4.2 Improved Sustainable Provision of Ecosystem Services 169
7.4.3 Biodiversity Conservation 169
7.4.4 Global and Local Climate Resilience 170
7.5 FLR Partnerships 170
7.6 Techniques and Tools in FLR 171
7.7 Implementation of FLR 180
7.7.1 Visioning 180
7.7.2 Conceptualizing 182
7.7.3 Acting 183
7.7.4 Sustaining 184
7.8 Forest Landscape Assessment 185
7.9 Conclusion 186
References 186
8 Ecological Restoration of Degraded Land through Afforestation Activities 201P. R. Oraon, Vidya Sagar and Kumari Beauty
8.1 Introduction 202
8.2 Concept of Ecological Restoration 203
8.3 Global Scenario of Land Degradation 203
8.4 Perspective of Land Degradation 204
8.5 Land Degradation under Changing Climate 206
8.6 Afforestation for Climate Change Mitigation 207
8.7 Afforestation for Problematic Soil and Land Management 208
8.7.1 Saline-Alkaline Soils 208
8.7.2 Afforestation in Waterlogged/Marshy Land 209
8.7.3 Afforestation in Mined-Out Areas 209
8.7.4 Afforestation in Coastal and Sandy Areas 210
8.8 Policy Initiative in Land Degradation and Afforestation 210
8.9 Conclusion 211
References 212
9 Sustaino-Resilient Agroforestry for Climate Resilience, Food Security and Land Degradation Neutrality 217Dinesha S., Suraj R. Hosur, Toushif P. K., Divya Bodiga, Deepthi Dechamma N. L., Ashwath M. N. and Devbratha Pradhan
9.1 Introduction 218
9.2 Is Agroforestry a Sustaino-Resilient Model? 219
9.2.1 Components of AF 220
9.2.1.1 Perennials 220
9.2.1.2 Crops 221
9.2.1.3 Livestock 221
9.2.2 Sustaino-Resilient Agroforestry Practices 221
9.2.2.1 Integrated Agroforestry Systems 222
9.2.2.2 Organic-Agroforestry 224
9.2.2.3 Natural Farming-Assisted Agroforestry 225
9.2.2.4 Perma-Agroforestry 225
9.2.2.5 Precision-Agroforestry 226
9.2.2.6 Horticulture Intervention in Agroforestry 226
9.2.2.7 Bamboo-Based Agroforestry 227
9.2.2.8 Medicinal Perennials Intervention in Agroforestry 227
9.2.2.9 Industrialized Agroforestry 228
9.2.3 Improved vs. Traditional Agroforestry Practices 228
9.3 Agroforestry for Climate Resilience 229
9.3.1 World Context 230
9.3.2 Indian Context 230
9.4 Agroforestry for Food Security 231
9.4.1 World Context 231
9.4.2 Indian Context 235
9.5 Agroforestry for Land Degradation Neutrality 235
9.5.1 World Context 236
9.5.2 Indian Context 236
9.6 The Way Forward 237
9.7 Conclusion 238
Acknowledgement 238
References 238
10 Land and Environmental Management through Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) System 247Kamlesh Verma, Prashant Sharma, D.R. Bhardwaj, Raj Kumar, Nasam Midhun Kumar and Alok Kumar Singh
10.1 Introduction 248
10.2 AFOLU and Climate Change 249
10.2.1 Trend of GHGs Emission from Agriculture 249
10.2.2 Trend of GHGs Emission from Forestry and Other Land Use System 251
10.3 Role of AFOLU in Land and Environment Management 252
10.3.1 Agriculture Sector 254
10.3.2 Forestry and Other Land Use 256
10.4 Co-Benefit from AFOLU 258
10.5 Challenges 259
10.6 Opportunities: the Way Forward and Future Perspective 261
10.7 Conclusion 262
References 262
11 Eco-Restoration of Degraded Forest Ecosystems for Sustainable Development 273Bhimappa Honnappa Kittur, Abhishek Raj, Anup P. Upadhyay, Manoj Kumar Jhariya and Arnab Banerjee
11.1 Introduction 274
11.2 Forest Cover and Degradation 274
11.3 Indicators of Forest Degradation 276
11.4 Criteria for Assessment of Forest Degradation 277
11.5 Forest Ecosystem Restoration 277
11.6 The Restoration Indicators 279
11.6.1 Social and Economic Context 279
11.6.2 Ecological Context 280
11.6.3 Silvicultural Context 280
11.7 Restoration through SFM and Afforestation 281
11.8 Forest Resilience 281
11.9 Forest Recovery 282
11.10 Policy and Future Roadmap 286
11.11 Conclusion 286
References 286
12 Forest for Sustainable Development 293Abhishek Raj, Manoj Kumar Jhariya, Arnab Banerjee, Bharat Lal, Taher Mechergui, Annpurna Devi and Ghanshyam
12.1 Introduction 294
12.2 World Forest: An Overview 295
12.3 Forest under Changing Climate 296
12.4 Forest for Ecosystem Services 297
12.5 Forest for Soil Management 299
12.6 Forest for Food and Nutritional Security 302
12.7 Sustainable Development: A Wake-Up Call 303
12.8 A Journey from Forest to Sustainable Forest Management 304
12.9 Policy and Future Roadmap 304
12.10 Conclusions 305
References 305
13 Unfolding Environmental Repercussions of Land Degradation in the Lone Municipal Council of Andaman, India, Using Geospatial Technologies: A Case Study 313Venkatesan Shiva Shankar, Neelam Purti, Satyakeerthy T. R. and Sunil Jacob
13.1 Introduction 314
13.2 Study Area at a Glance 314
13.2.1 Meteorology 316
13.2.2 Physiography 316
13.2.3 Geology 316
13.2.4 Soil 316
13.3 Materials and Methodology 317
13.3.1 Materials 317
13.3.2 Methodology 317
13.3.2.1 Lulc 318
13.3.2.2 Surface Runoff 318
13.3.2.3 Soil Erosion 319
13.3.2.4 Landslide Hazard Zonation 323
13.3.2.5 Carbon Storage and Sequestration 323
13.3.2.6 Lst 323
13.4 Results and Discussion 324
13.4.1 Lulc 324
13.4.2 Quantification of Surface Runoff 326
13.4.3 Quantification of Soil Erosion 326
13.4.4 Demarcation of Shallow Landslide Hazard Zonation 329
13.4.5 Quantification of Carbon Sequestration 330
13.4.6 Quantification of Land Surface Temperature 330
13.5 Conclusion 331
References 331
14 Acacia nilotica: A Promising Species for Soil Sustainability 339Annpurna Devi, Manoj Kumar Jhariya, Abhishek Raj, Arnab Banerjee, Krishan Pal Singh and Beena Singh
14.1 Introduction 340
14.2 Habitat, Distribution and Ecology 341
14.3 Acacia nilotica-Based Agroforestry 342
14.4 Acacia nilotica and Soil Sustainability 342
14.5 Acacia and its Role in Soil Carbon Sequestration 344
14.6 Acacia nilotica: A Promising N 2 Fixing Tree 345
14.7 Acacia: A Promising Tool for Land Restoration 345
14.8 Acacia and Its Other Sustainability Roles 347
14.9 Policy and Future Roadmap 348
14.10 Conclusions 348
References 349
15 Farmland Evaluation to Stimulate the Rational Land Use and Soil Quality Enhancement: The Ukrainian Case 355Inna Koblianska and Olha Kovalova
15.1 Introduction 356
15.2 Moratorium on the Sale of Agricultural Land and Its Social, Ecological, and Economic Consequences in Ukraine 357
15.3 An Overview of Agriculture in Ukraine 358
15.4 Evolution of Monetary Valuation of Agricultural Land in Ukraine and Modern Challenges 360
15.5 Conceptual Provisions for the Assessment of Land Resources from the Standpoint of their Multifaceted Nature 362
15.6 Development of a Methodology for the Normative Monetary Land Valuation to Stimulate Rational Land Use 363
15.7 Conclusion 366
References 367
About the Editors 371
Index 373
Abhishek Raj1, Manoj Kumar Jhariya2*, Arnab Banerjee3, Sharad Nema4 and Kiran Bargali5
1Pt. Deendayal Upadhyay College of Horticulture & Forestry, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar, India
2Department of Farm Forestry, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
3Department of Environmental Science, Sant Gahira Guru Vishwavidyalaya, Sarguja, Ambikapur (C.G.), India
4Department of Forestry & Wildlife, Saheed Mahendra Karma Vishwavidyalaya, Jagdalpur, Bastar (C.G.), India
5Department of Botany, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital (Uttarakhand), India
Presently, land degradation is a global concern discussed by numerous institutions and its management is of utmost important for ensuring environmental sustainability. As per ISRO (2019), approx. 97.85 M ha of land is degraded and 3.32 M ha of degradation was reported between 2005 and 2019 (last five years) in India. Almost 30% of the country's geographical areas are under desertification, which is a major environmental problem. Thirty percent of 71 M ha forest land, 20% of agricultural and 10% of grass land are under land degradation severity due to anthropogenic activities. Similarly, land degradation and desertification affect 2.6 billion people in a hundred countries which cover approximately 33% of global land surface. These figures are enough to express a global scenario of land degradation in the world. Land degradation, climate change and biodiversity losses are strongly linked to poor environmental health and services. Poor environmental health, services and its sustainability are further amplified by land degradation including deforestation and intensive land use practices. Land degradation vulnerability (LDV) is also observed due to poor vegetations and soil quality under climate change that jeopardize ecosystem health and environmental sustainability. In this context, land degradation can be reversed by practicing sustainable forest management including better restoration and rehabilitation. Moreover, UNCCD also introduced the term LDN (land degradation neutrality) which represents land management for enhancing ecosystem services including soil-food quality and its sustainability. Therefore, sustainable land use and management is a key step towards better environmental sustainability which can be possible through managing forests in sustainable ways. Constructive policy and institutional supports are required to sustainable land and environmental management through better forestry practices.
Keywords: Afforestation, desertification, ecosystem services, land degradation, restoration
Land is a key terrestrial resource that delivers uncountable ecosystem services including food, fiber and shelters. Land degradation is a continuous process propelled by natural, climatic and various anthropogenic activities. Deforestation, intensive agriculture, mining and several other developmental projects deteriorate land quality and related environmental services. Erosion, desertification, waterlogging condition, salinization, and organic matter depletions are key drivers for land quality deterioration [1]. Land degradation affects biodiversity along with ecosystem health and productivity. Land degradation alters physical, chemical and biological properties that affect biology, economy and quality of land. Soil acidity, salinization, lesser SOC, erosion, desertification, soil compactions result in unproductive land which reduces plant health and productivity [2]. Unscientific farming, urban sprawl, improper irrigation, land clearance and overgrazing are key causes of degradation. Moreover, industrial waste and quarrying of sand, stone and minerals resulted in land pollution [3]. Land degradation also affects various environmental services including regulation of fresh water quality, climate regulation, clean air quality, soil fertility, plant productions and recreational opportunities globally [4, 5]. Land degradation also affects hydrological and biogeochemical cycles [6]. Around 60% of global land area has been degraded by various natural and anthropogenic factors [7]. Land degradation deteriorates environmental health and productivity [8]. Nearly 40.0 billion USD has been lost due to annual degradation of land resource in the world [9]. Therefore, it has negative consequences on the environment and affects soil-food-climate security. Approx. 18.10 M Km2 areas are reported as degraded lands of which 92% and 38% are due to mismanagement and overgrazing of animals [10]. Similarly, 30%, 20% and 10% of forests, arable land and grasslands, respectively, have been affected negatively due to land degradation which influenced 1.50 billion people of the world [11]. A total 50% of arable land comes under moderate to severe degradation. Land degradation affects 1.50 billion people in the world. Every year approx. 15.0 billion tons of soil losses occur, whereas desertification and drought lead to 12.0 m ha-1 soil degradation. Land degradation also affects biodiversity through loss of 27,000 species annually. The risk of dry land has been prevalent in 110 countries which affected approximately 250 million people globally. Moreover, a desertification cost was reported as 42 million dollars globally [10].
In this context, land restoration is an urgent need which minimizes negative consequences on our environment. Managing forests is a good weapon to manage land, soil, water and other natural resources in this climate change era. Afforestation activities, ground cover plantations, conservation agriculture, organic agricultural practices, and a sustainable land use system ensure healthy land/soil and related parameters [12]. Thus, land degradation nowadays has become a big environmental challenge which needs a scientific and holistic approach for healthy land management that ensures environmental sustainability and ecological stability on a long-term basis [13].
The present chapter will address the land degradation in developed and developing nation and its restoration through sustainable land use practices. Impacts of land degradation and desertification on soil, water, food and other resource induced environmental changes are also discussed. Land reclamation through forestry by practicing SFM and other sustainable land use system are included in this chapter. It will also focus on new insights related to updated research, development and policy-oriented afforestation activities for combating C footprints and climate change issue for better ecosystem health and productivity through sustainable land management approach.
Land is lithospheric component of environment which provides many valuable direct and indirect services including food, air and water for sustaining peoples and biodiversity. Land resource is degraded continuously due to excessive pressure by intensive agricultural practices, deforestation, urbanization and cattle ranching beyond carrying capacity of the land. Unsustainable land use practices and its frequent changes along with its expansion put ecosystem health and its services in danger. The degradation of land and its resources is not confined in limited regions but is expanded throughout the globe, especially in developing countries. Land degradation is maximum in Asia followed by Africa and European countries. A global map has been created by the World Atlas of Desertification for assessment of land productivity and changes during the period 1999-2013 [14]. Similarly, land degradation due to desertification incurred 490 USD billion yr-1 of the cost which affects the health and economy of 3.20 billion people. Europe and Central Asia (ECA) countries have a diversified ecosystem for people sustenance but they are facing land degradation issues and various environmental challenges [15]. However, there is a blurred map on the severity and extent of land degradation that countries have been facing from the past [16]. IPBES has also discussed land degradation scenarios in India, Asia, Europe and other countries of the world in its recent report [17]. Approx. 10-60 million Km2 areas were reported as land degradation globally, which corresponds to ice-free land area of 8-45%. This assessment has been based on a global map sketched by experts, their opinion arrived at by using satellite observatory, biophysical models and abandoned agricultural lands database [18]. Remote sensing-based satellite date including NOAA AVHRR data has reported land degradation with approx. 22-24% of the world ice-free land area in downward trend whereas increasing trends were shown by 16% respectively in the period 1983-2006 [19]. Similarly, 29% of land area is reported as "land degradation hotspots" globally which needs serious attentions for its management. Globally, land degradation affected 3.20 and 1.33 billion people of which 95% were in developing countries [20, 21]. Also, different soil erosion model (RUSLE) was used to identify soil erosion-based land degradation in the regions of Southeast Asia, Africa and South America [22, 23].
Land degradation and its inappropriate uses destroy soil quality and other natural resources. Unsustainable land use practices including intensive agriculture and deforestation...
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