About the Editor xiii

List of Contributors xv

Preface xxi

1 Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 1
Kitichate Sridith

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Wetlands Categories of the Eastern Himalayas 2

1.2.1 The Valley Bottom Wetlands 2

1.2.2 Highland Bogs, Fens, and Marshes of the Eastern Himalayas 5

1.3 Floristic Composition of the Shallow Fresh Marsh, Seasonally Flooded Flat Basins, Poor Fen, and Freshwater Meadows of Eastern Himalaya Wetlands 11

1.4 Spring Wetlands on the Lower Slope Areas of the Hillside in the Eastern Himalaya 12

1.5 Riverine and Floodplain Wetlands Above 2500 M in the Eastern Himalayas 14

1.6 The Livelihood in Wetlands of the Eastern Himalaya and the Conservation Measures 17

1.6.1 Livelihood of the Rivers/Streams Wetlands 18

1.6.2 The Conservation Procedures That May Harm Wetlands and Their Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas 18

1.7 Conservation Measures 18

References 19

2 Wetlands of Nepal: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation Initiatives 25
Krishna K. Shrestha, Sanjeev K. Rai, Rabindra Maharjan, and Prabina Dahal

2.1 Introduction 25

2.1.1 Nepal's Wetland Diversity 26

2.1.2 Ramsar Convention and Wetlands in Nepal 26

2.2 Wetland Biodiversity 28

2.2.1 Floral Diversity 28

2.2.1.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 28

2.2.1.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 28

2.2.1.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 28

2.2.2 Faunal Diversity 32

2.2.2.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 32

2.2.2.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 33

2.2.2.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 33

2.3 Wetlands in Nepal 37

2.3.1 Wetlands in Mountains (or High Hills) of Nepal 38

2.3.1.1 Gokyo and Associated Wetlands (Solukhumbu District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 38

2.3.1.2 Gosainkunda and Associated Wetlands (Rasuwa District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 38

2.3.1.3 Phoksundo Wetland (Dolpa District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 41

2.3.1.4 Rara Wetland (Mugu District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 41

2.3.2 Wetlands in the Mid Hills of Nepal 44

2.3.2.1 Mai Pokhari Wetland (Ilam District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 44

2.3.2.2 Lake Cluster of Pokhara Valley (Kaski District, Gandaki Province, Central Nepal) 46

2.3.3 Wetlands in the Low Land (Tarai) of Nepal 47

2.3.3.1 Koshi Tappu Wetland (Sunsari District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 47

2.3.3.2 Beeshazar Wetland and Associated Lakes (Chitwan District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 49

2.3.3.3 Jagdishpur Lake Wetland (Kapilvastu District, Lumbini Province, Central Nepal) 51

2.3.3.4 Ghodaghodi Lake Complex (Kailali District, Sudur Paschim Province, Western Nepal) 52

2.3.4 Wetlands of National Importance 52

2.4 Livelihood Issues Associated with the Wetlands 57

2.4.1 Wetlands and Livelihood Incentives 57

2.4.1.1 Provisioning Services 57

2.4.1.2 Regulating Services 59

2.4.1.3 Supporting Services 59

2.4.1.4 Cultural Services 59

2.4.2 Wetlands and Tourism Industry 59

2.5 Threats to Wetlands 60

2.5.1 Alien Invasive Species 60

2.5.2 Climate Change 60

2.5.3 Lack of Science-Based Knowledge 61

2.5.4 Infrastructures and Recreational Activities 61

2.5.5 Threats to Cultural Sites 61

2.6 Wetland Conservation Initiatives 61

2.6.1 Wetland Management Practices 62

2.6.2 Wetland Conservation Policies in Nepal 63

2.6.3 Wetland-Related Legislations 63

2.6.4 Wetland-Related Conventions and Commitments 63

2.7 Recommendations and Conclusion 65
GIS Map Credit 66

Photo Credit 66

3.A Common Flora (Plant Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 67

3.B Common Fauna (Animal Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 75

References 80

3 Wetlands of Himalayan and Hindu Kush Regions of Pakistan 85
Andleeb Batool, Naseeba Mustafavi, Asia Parveen, Maryam Mukhtar, Abdul Jabbar, and Dania Razzaq

3.1 Introduction 85

3.2 Geographical Setting 86

3.3 Biodiversity 87

3.3.1 Mammals 87

3.3.2 Birds 91

3.3.3 Fishes 92

3.3.4 The Herpetofauna 92

3.4 Flora 93

3.5 Threats 95

3.5.1 Excessive Resource Harvesting 95

3.5.2 Illegal Hunting and Retaliatory Killings 95

3.5.3 Decreasing Water Quality 95

3.5.4 Ill-Managed Tourism 95

3.5.5 Potential Climate Change 96

3.6 Conservation Strategies 96

3.7 Gaps in Conservation Efforts 96

References 97

4 Wetlands of Armenia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 103
Karen Aghababyan, Janna Akopian, Susanna Hakobyan, Mark Kalashian, Astghik Ghazaryan, Levon Aghasyan, Samvel Pipoyan, Noushig Zarikian, and Karen Jenderedjian

4.1 Overview 103

4.2 Biodiversity 104

4.2.1 Wetlands of Ararat Plain 104

4.2.2 Grassy Marshes 111

4.3 Human Factors 120

4.3.1 Water Acquisition 120

4.3.2 Drainage of Wetlands 121

4.3.3 Pollution of Wetlands 122

4.3.4 Reed Harvesting and Arsons 122

4.3.5 Livestock Grazing 122

4.3.6 Waterbird Harvesting 122

4.4 Conservation 123

References 124

5 Wetlands of Georgia 129
Guram Aleksidze, Givi Japaridze, and Zurab Manvelidze

5.1 Kolkheti Landscapes and Their Condition 129

5.2 Agroclimatic Characteristics of Kolkheti Lowland 130

5.3 Soils of Kolkheti 131

5.4 Wetland Landscape as an Economic Resource Phenomenon 131

5.4.1 Peat Deposits 132

5.4.2 Swamps of Kolkheti 132

5.4.3 Biodiversity of Protected and Recreation Areas of Kolkheti 134

5.4.3.1 Biodiversity of Kolkheti National Park 134

5.4.3.2 Biodiversity of Kobuleti Protected Areas 138

5.4.3.3 Biodiversity of Shekvetili Dendrological Park (Guria, Ozurgeti) 141

5.4.3.4 Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 141

5.4.3.5 Kintrishi Protected Areas 143

5.4.3.6 Biodiversity of Protected Areas of Colchic Temperate Rainforests 143

5.4.3.7 Endemic Plant Species Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 149

5.5 The Future of Kolkheti Wetlands: Development Prospects 152

5.6 Livelihood of Kolkheti Lowland 153

References 154

6 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Slovakia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 157
Ján Cernecký, Jana spulerová, Viktória Duricová, and Ján Kadlecík

6.1 Introduction 157

6.2 Legislative Protection of Wetlands in Slovakia 159

6.2.1 Protection of Wetlands at National Level 159

6.2.2 Protection of Wetlands by Natura 2000 Protected Area Network 159

6.3 Protection of Wetlands by International Treaties 161

6.4 List and Description of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 165

6.4.1 Vo Aquatic Habitats 165

6.4.2 Br Non-forested Riparian Vegetation 167

6.4.3 Kr Shrub and Bush Habitats 168

6.4.4 Al Alpine Vegetation 169

6.4.5 Lk Meadows and Pastures 169

6.4.6 Ra Peatland Habitats 170

6.4.7 Pr Springs 172

6.4.8 Ls Forests 173

6.5 Conservation Status of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 174

6.6 Threats and Management of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 174

6.6.1 Changes in Hydrological Conditions Due to Drainage, Abstraction, and Hydropower Plant Construction 174

6.6.2 Erosion and Sedimentation 175

6.6.3 Agriculture and Forestry 176

6.6.4 Transport Infrastructure and Constructions 176

6.6.5 Tourism and Recreation 176

6.6.6 Pollution 176

6.6.7 Alien Invasive Species 177

6.7 Management and Restoration of Wetlands in Slovakia 177

6.8 Determination of Priorities and Protection Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance 181

6.8.1 Priorities for Determining Measures and Management for Species and Habitats of European Importance 181

6.8.2 Conservation Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance in Sites of European Importance 181

6.8.3 Management Measures for Habitats and Habitats of Species of European Importance 181

6.9 Contribution of Slovak Mountain Wetlands to Livelihood 182

References 183

7 Wetlands of Mountainous Region of Bosnia and Herzegovina 187
Barudanovic Senka, MaSic Ermin, and Macanovic Armin

7.1 Introduction 187

7.2 Distribution and Factors of Formation of Peatland Ecosystems 188

7.2.1 Characteristics of the Peatland Ecosystem in the B&H Mountains 190

7.2.2 Basic Ecological and Phytocenological Characteristics of Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 191

7.3 Overview of Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of Mountain Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 194

7.3.1 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands in Bijambare 194

7.3.2 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Zvijezda 195

7.3.3 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Vranica 196

7.4 Spectrum of Indicator Values of Peatland Ecosystems in Bosnia and Herzegovina 198

7.5 Overview of Algae Diversity in Peatlands of Bosnia and Herzegovina 200

7.6 Pressures on the Peatland Ecosystems of Bosnia and Herzegovina 201

7.7 Principles of Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Peatland Ecosystems 203

References 204

8 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Mexico 207
José Luis Marín-Muñiz and Sergio A. Zamora Castro

8.1 Introduction 207

8.2 Location of Mexico 208

8.3 Importance of Wetlands 208

8.4 Common Issues Affecting Wetlands Located in Mexican Mountains 215

8.5 Conclusions 215

References 215

9 Mountain Bogs of Costa Rica: Ecological Dynamics, Biogeography, Diversity, and Conservation 219
Gerardo Avalos, Rafael Acuña-Castillo, José Esteban Jiménez, Bert Kohlmann, Gerardo Umaña- Villalobos, Paula Calderón-Mesén, Ricardo Sánchez-Calderón, and Víctor Acosta-Chaves

9.1 Introduction 219

9.2 Distribution of Mountain Bogs and Characterization of Their Plant Diversity 220

9.3 Biogeography of the Talamanca Mountain Range 228

9.4 Plant Biogeography 229

9.5 Structure of Plant Communities 230

9.6 Birds 231

9.7 Amphibians and Reptiles 234

9.7.1 Salamanders 234

9.7.2 Anurans 234

9.7.3 Reptiles 235

9.7.4 Mammals 236

9.7.5 Small Terrestrial Insectivores 236

9.7.6 Small-and Medium-Sized Herbivores 236

9.7.7 Bats 237

9.7.8 Large Herbivores 237

9.8 Predators 239

9.8.1 Aquatic Macroinvertebrates 240

9.8.2 Flying Insects 240

9.9 Limnological Properties of Mountain Bogs 241

9.10 Biogeographic Importance of Mountain Bogs as Record Keepers of Past Glaciations 241

9.11 Ecological Role of Mountain Bogs 242

9.12 Impact of Climate Change 243

9.13 Management and Conservation of Mountain Bogs 244

References 245

10 Wetlands of Mountain Regions of Bolivia: Landscapes, Types, Conservation, and Livelihoods 255
Alejandra I. Domic, Oscar Plata, and Mónica Moraes R.

10.1 Introduction 255

10.2 Wetlands' Landscapes and Processes in High Andes of Bolivia 256

10.2.1 Lacustrine Wetlands 257

10.2.2 Riparian Wetlands 257

10.2.3 Palustrine Wetlands 258

10.3 Vegetation Patterns and Representative Biotic Species 259

10.4 Natural Processes in High Mountain Wetlands and Conservation 264

10.5 Conservation of Andean Wetlands 267

10.5.1 Conservation Units and Protected Areas 268

10.5.2 Ramsar Sites 269

10.6 Biodiversity Used by Local Communities 269

10.6.1 Opportunities and Challenges for People and Livelihoods in Montane Wetlands 270

References 271

11 Mountain Wetlands of Argentina 277
Rubén D. Quintana, Elena Abraham, Yanina Arzamendia, Luis Epele, Clara Rubio, Jorge L. Baldo, Verónica Rojo, Cecilia Rubio, Natalia Solís, and Patricia Kandus

11.1 Introduction 277

11.2 Wetland Regions and Subregions of Argentina 279

11.3 High Andean and Puna Wetlands Region 279

11.3.1 Vegas, Shallow Lakes, and Salt Flats of the Puna Subregion 279

11.3.1.1 Physical- Environmental Characterization 279

11.3.1.2 Types of Wetlands 279

11.3.1.3 Biodiversity 282

11.3.1.4 Contributions to People 283

11.3.1.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 284

11.3.1.6 Protected Areas 285

11.3.2 High Andean Vegas and Shallow Lakes Subregion 285

11.3.2.1 Physical- Environmental Characterization 285

11.3.2.2 Types of Wetlands 286

11.3.2.3 Biodiversity 289

11.3.2.4 Contributions to People 289

11.3.2.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 290

11.3.2.6 Protected Areas 290

11.4 Mountain Pre-Andean and Sub-Andean Wetlands Region 291

11.4.1 Physical- Environmental Characterization 291

11.4.2 Types of Wetlands 291

11.4.3 Biodiversity 292

11.4.4 Contributions to People 293

11.4.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 294

11.4.6 Protected Areas 296

11.5 Patagonian Wetlands Region 297

11.5.1 Lakes, Streams, and Mallines of the Patagonian Andes Subregion 297

11.5.1.1 Physical- Environmental Characterization 297

11.5.1.2 Types of Wetlands 297

11.5.1.3 Biodiversity 298

11.5.1.4 Contributions to People 299

11.5.1.5 Threats and Conservation Trends 299

11.5.1.6 Protected Areas 299

11.6 Final Remarks 301

References 303

12 Wetlands in the Mountain Region of Serbia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 313
Imre Krizmanic, Dragana Jenackovic Gocic¿, Dimitrije Radisic, Biljana Panjkovic, Ranko Peric, Sara Pavkov, Nenad Sekulic, and Milica Rat

12.1 Introduction 313

12.2 Biodiversity 314

12.2.1 Floristic and Vegetation Diversity, Habitat Types 314

12.2.2 Animal Diversity 321

12.2.2.1 Diversity of Amphibians and Reptiles 321

12.2.2.2 Diversity of Birds 327

12.3 Livelihoods 329

12.4 Nature Conservation 330

12.4.1 Threatment and Protection of Habitat Types in Wetlands 330

12.4.2 Ecological Network 333

12.4.3 Threatment and Conservation of Plant Species 334

12.4.4 Threatment and Conservation of Amphibians 334

12.4.5 Threatment and Conservation of Reptiles 336

12.4.6 Threat Factors and Conservative Measures for Mountain Wetlands 337

12.5 Conclusion 338

References 339

Regulations 349

Index 351