Medical Malpractice and Compensation in Global Perspective

1 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in Global Perspective: Introduction [Seite 19]
1.1 - I. Issues Addressed [Seite 20]
1.1.1 - A. Overall Scheme [Seite 20]
1.1.2 - B. Details of the Applicable Liability and Compensation Systems [Seite 21]
1.1.3 - C. Empirical Data [Seite 22]
1.1.4 - D. Attitudes, Concerns, and Prospects [Seite 22]
1.2 - II. Aims [Seite 22]
2 - Medical Malpractice in Austria [Seite 25]
2.1 - Introduction [Seite 25]
2.2 - I. The Insurance Framework [Seite 26]
2.2.1 - A. Social Insurance in Austria [Seite 26]
2.2.2 - B. The Role of Private Insurance [Seite 27]
2.2.2.1 - 1. First-Party Insurance [Seite 27]
2.2.2.2 - 2. Liability Insurance [Seite 28]
2.3 - II. The Regulatory Framework [Seite 28]
2.3.1 - A. Professional Law [Seite 28]
2.3.2 - B. Criminal Law [Seite 29]
2.3.3 - C. Contract Law [Seite 30]
2.3.4 - D. Tortious and Contractual Liability [Seite 31]
2.3.4.1 - 1. Tortious and Contractual Liability Not Mutually Exclusive [Seite 31]
2.3.4.2 - 2. Tort Law in General [Seite 32]
2.3.4.3 - 3. Damage [Seite 32]
2.3.4.4 - 4. Causation [Seite 32]
2.3.4.5 - 5. Wrongfulness and Fault [Seite 35]
2.3.4.6 - 6. Multiple Persons Involved [Seite 36]
2.3.4.7 - 7. Informed Consent [Seite 39]
2.3.4.8 - 8. Remedies [Seite 42]
2.4 - III. Compensation claims in practice [Seite 46]
2.4.1 - A. General Remarks [Seite 46]
2.4.2 - B. Patient Advocacies [Seite 47]
2.4.3 - C. Conciliation Bodies [Seite 48]
2.4.4 - D. Compensation Funds [Seite 49]
2.4.5 - E. Outlook [Seite 50]
3 - A Bridge over troubled Waters: The Development of Medical Malpractice Litigation in Brazil [Seite 53]
3.1 - Introduction [Seite 53]
3.2 - I. The Brazilian Legal System [Seite 57]
3.3 - II. The Structure of the Brazilian Legal System [Seite 58]
3.4 - III. The influence of the Consumer's Defense Code [Seite 61]
3.4.1 - A. Informed Consent, the Duty to Inform, and Informed Choice [Seite 63]
3.4.2 - B. Moral Damages and the Inversion of the Burden of Proof As Patient's Basic Rights [Seite 67]
3.5 - IV. The Changes Brought by the New Civil Code [Seite 68]
3.6 - Conclusion [Seite 70]
4 - Canadian Medical Malpractice Law in 2011: Missing the Mark on Patient Safety [Seite 73]
4.1 - Introduction [Seite 73]
4.2 - I. The Canadian Malpractice Context [Seite 75]
4.2.1 - rvice Delivery, Regulation and Liability Insurance [Seite 77]
4.3 - II. State and Quality of the Canadian Health Care System [Seite 78]
4.3.1 - A. Medical Malpractice in the Domain of Privately Financed Care [Seite 84]
4.4 - III. Redressing Adverse Events through the Courts [Seite 85]
4.4.1 - A. Canadian Medical Malpractice Liability in Context [Seite 87]
4.4.2 - B. Empirical Trends on Medical Liability Claims [Seite 88]
4.4.3 - C. Black Letter of Canadian Tort Law [Seite 90]
4.4.3.1 - 1. Battery by Physicians [Seite 91]
4.4.3.2 - 2. Negligence by Physicians [Seite 91]
4.4.3.3 - 3. Hospital Liability [Seite 99]
4.4.3.4 - 4. Government Liability [Seite 101]
4.4.3.5 - 5. Damages [Seite 102]
4.4.3.6 - 6. Ongoing Issues and Avenues of Reform [Seite 104]
4.5 - IV. Preventing Adverse Events: Professional and System Reform [Seite 105]
4.5.1 - A. Reforms at the Level of the Professions [Seite 106]
4.5.1.1 - 1. Alternative Complaint Mechanisms [Seite 106]
4.5.1.2 - 2. Revalidation/Recertification [Seite 107]
4.5.1.3 - 3. Apology Legislation [Seite 108]
4.5.2 - B. Systemic Reforms [Seite 109]
4.5.2.1 - 1. Accreditation of Facilities [Seite 109]
4.5.2.2 - 2. Canadian Patient Safety Institute [Seite 110]
4.5.2.3 - 3. Improved Information Gathering and Dissemination [Seite 110]
4.6 - Conclusion [Seite 112]
5 - Yangge Dance: the Rhythm of Liability for Medical Malpractice in the People's Republic of China [Seite 115]
5.1 - Introduction [Seite 115]
5.2 - I. The Wider Healthcare Context [Seite 117]
5.3 - II. The Early P.R. China: Medical Services as Social Welfare (1949-1987) [Seite 120]
5.4 - III. The Administrative Liability Regime [Seite 123]
5.4.1 - A. The Medical Accident Rules 1987 [Seite 123]
5.4.1.1 - 1. Context [Seite 123]
5.4.1.2 - 2. Main Features of the Administrative Liability Regime, 1987-2002 [Seite 124]
5.4.2 - B. The Medical Accident Regulations 2002 [Seite 126]
5.4.2.1 - 1. Context [Seite 126]
5.4.2.2 - 2. Main Features of the Administrative Liability Regime, 2002 onwards [Seite 126]
5.5 - IV. The Tort Liability Regime [Seite 129]
5.5.1 - A. Recourse to the General Principles of Civil Liability [Seite 129]
5.5.2 - B. Elements of the Tort Liability Regime [Seite 131]
5.5.2.1 - 1. Cause of Action [Seite 131]
5.5.2.2 - 2. Burden of Proof [Seite 131]
5.5.2.3 - 3. The Identification Process [Seite 132]
5.5.2.4 - 4. Assessment of Damages [Seite 133]
5.5.3 - C. Effect on the Administrative Liability Regime [Seite 134]
5.6 - V. Reform of Medical Liability under the Tort Liability Law of 2009 [Seite 135]
5.6.1 - A. Antecedents [Seite 135]
5.6.1.1 - 1. Increasing Disputes between Doctors and Patients [Seite 135]
5.6.1.2 - 2. Concerns about Defensive Medical Treatments [Seite 136]
5.6.1.3 - 3. The Chaos Resulting from the Dual Dystem of Medical Liability [Seite 137]
5.6.2 - B. Legislative History [Seite 138]
5.6.3 - C. Four Dimensions of the TLL [Seite 139]
5.6.3.1 - 1. Basis of the Cause of Action [Seite 139]
5.6.3.2 - 2. Burden of Proof [Seite 142]
5.6.3.3 - 3. The Identification Procedure [Seite 144]
5.6.3.4 - 4. Assessment of Damages [Seite 144]
5.7 - VI. Another Step Backwards on Its Way? [Seite 145]
5.8 - Conclusion [Seite 148]
6 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in France [Seite 149]
6.1 - Part I: The French Rules of Medical Liability since the Patients' Rights Law of March 4, 2002 [Seite 149]
6.1.1 - Introduction [Seite 149]
6.1.2 - I. General Conditions of Medical Liability [Seite 152]
6.1.2.1 - A. Facts Likely to Justify the Physician's Responsibility [Seite 153]
6.1.2.1.1 - 1. Liability Based on Fault [Seite 154]
6.1.2.1.2 - 2. Strict Liability [Seite 161]
6.1.2.2 - B. The Causal Link [Seite 166]
6.1.2.2.1 - 1. Causation Criterion [Seite 166]
6.1.2.2.2 - 2. Causation Proof [Seite 167]
6.1.2.3 - C. The Victim's Harm [Seite 172]
6.1.3 - II. Administration and Adjudication of claims based on liability rules [Seite 174]
6.1.3.1 - A. Adjudication Through Conciliation Commissions [Seite 175]
6.1.3.2 - B. Adjudication Through Courts [Seite 177]
6.2 - Part II: Compensation Based on National Solidarity [Seite 181]
6.2.1 - Introduction [Seite 181]
6.2.2 - I. Typology of Cases Covered by National Solidarity [Seite 182]
6.2.2.1 - A. Medical Hazards [Seite 182]
6.2.2.2 - B. Hospital-Acquired Infections [Seite 184]
6.2.2.3 - C. Blood Transfusions Infections [Seite 185]
6.2.2.3.1 - 1. HIV Infection [Seite 185]
6.2.2.3.2 - 2. Hepatitis C Infection [Seite 186]
6.2.2.3.3 - 3. Additional Grounds [Seite 186]
6.2.3 - II. Administration and Adjudication of Claims Based on National Solidarity [Seite 187]
6.2.3.1 - A. Administrated Claims [Seite 187]
6.2.3.2 - B. Procedural Routes to ONIAM [Seite 189]
6.2.3.3 - C. Adjudication Proceedings in Front of ONIAM [Seite 191]
6.2.3.4 - D. Regulatory Principles Applying to Rights of Recourse [Seite 192]
6.2.4 - III. Awarded Compensation [Seite 193]
7 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in Germany [Seite 197]
7.1 - Introduction [Seite 197]
7.2 - I. The Potential Legal Consequences of Medical Injury [Seite 199]
7.2.1 - A. Criminal Law [Seite 199]
7.2.2 - B. Professional and Disciplinary Sanctions [Seite 200]
7.2.3 - C. Fault-Based Compensation in Private Law [Seite 201]
7.2.4 - D. Strict Liability and No-Fault Compensation for Medical Product Injury [Seite 204]
7.2.5 - E. Social Security, Insurance, and Subrogation Issues [Seite 205]
7.3 - II. The System of Private Law Compensation [Seite 207]
7.3.1 - A. Treatment Malpractice Claims [Seite 207]
7.3.1.1 - 1. Faulty Treatment [Seite 207]
7.3.1.2 - 2. Causation [Seite 210]
7.3.1.3 - 3. Proof Issues [Seite 211]
7.3.2 - B. Disclosure Malpractice Claims [Seite 214]
7.3.2.1 - 1. Background [Seite 214]
7.3.2.2 - 2. Standard of Disclosure [Seite 215]
7.3.2.3 - 3. Causation [Seite 216]
7.3.3 - C. Damages and Liability Insurance Issues [Seite 217]
7.3.4 - D. The Medical Arbitration Boards [Seite 219]
7.4 - III. Assessment of the Current Situation [Seite 220]
7.4.1 - A. Empirical Data [Seite 220]
7.4.2 - B. Evaluation of the Private Law Redress Rules [Seite 223]
7.4.3 - C. Patient Safety Initiatives [Seite 225]
7.5 - Conclusion [Seite 226]
7.6 - Addendum [Seite 227]
8 - Medical Malpractice: The Italian Experience [Seite 229]
8.1 - Introduction [Seite 229]
8.2 - I. The Problematic Nature of Medical Liability [Seite 231]
8.3 - II. The Assignment of the Burden of Proof Between Parties [Seite 239]
8.3.1 - A. Proving Fault [Seite 239]
8.3.2 - B. Proving Causation-In-Fact [Seite 244]
8.3.3 - C. Proving Causation Under the Criminal Law and Under the Civil Law [Seite 247]
8.3.4 - D. The Role of Informed Consent [Seite 250]
8.4 - Conclusion [Seite 253]
9 - The Law of Medical Misadventure in Japan [Seite 257]
9.1 - Introduction [Seite 257]
9.2 - I. Prosecutions and Their Consequences [Seite 260]
9.2.1 - A. Prosecutions in Medical Cases [Seite 260]
9.2.2 - B. Response by the Health Ministry and the Medical Profession [Seite 264]
9.2.3 - C. One Prosecution Too Many: The Medical Professionals' Counterattack and the String of Acquittals [Seite 267]
9.3 - II. Civil Liability [Seite 269]
9.3.1 - A. Substantive Law of Medical Malpractice [Seite 270]
9.3.1.1 - 1. Theories of Recovery [Seite 270]
9.3.1.2 - 2. Standard of Care [Seite 271]
9.3.1.3 - 3. Level of Proof [Seite 272]
9.3.1.4 - 4. Informed Consent and Related Actions [Seite 275]
9.3.1.5 - 5. Damages [Seite 276]
9.3.2 - B. Key Aspects of Procedural Law and Practice [Seite 278]
9.3.2.1 - 1. In General [Seite 278]
9.3.2.2 - 2. Discovery of Peer Review Findings [Seite 279]
9.3.2.3 - 3. Judicial Administration Reforms [Seite 280]
9.3.2.4 - 4. Settlement Practices, Overall Claiming Levels, and Malpractice Insurance Premiums [Seite 281]
9.3.2.5 - 5. Plaintiffs' Attorney Fees and Court Filing Fees [Seite 285]
9.4 - III. The No-Fault Compensation System for Obstetrical Injury [Seite 286]
9.5 - Conclusion [Seite 289]
9.6 - Addendum [Seite 291]
10 - Treatment Injury in New Zealand [Seite 293]
10.1 - Introduction [Seite 293]
10.2 - I. The New Zealand Accident Compensation Scheme [Seite 294]
10.2.1 - A. The Woodhouse Report [Seite 294]
10.2.2 - B. Implementation [Seite 296]
10.2.3 - C. Developments to 2010 [Seite 297]
10.2.4 - D. Relationship with the Common Law [Seite 301]
10.2.5 - E. Cover [Seite 303]
10.2.5.1 - 1. Categories of Cover [Seite 303]
10.2.5.2 - 2. Personal Injury [Seite 304]
10.2.5.3 - 3. Residual Actions for Damages [Seite 305]
10.2.6 - F. Claimants [Seite 306]
10.2.7 - G. Benefits [Seite 306]
10.2.8 - H. Claims Process [Seite 308]
10.2.9 - I. Funding [Seite 309]
10.2.10 - J. Administration [Seite 310]
10.3 - II. Medical Injuries [Seite 310]
10.3.1 - A. Cover [Seite 313]
10.3.2 - B. Treatment Injury [Seite 314]
10.3.2.1 - 1. Proof of Cause [Seite 314]
10.3.2.1.1 - a. Atkinson and Ambros [Seite 315]
10.3.2.1.2 - b. Modification of Ordinary Rules? [Seite 319]
10.3.2.2 - 2. Nature of Treatment Injury [Seite 322]
10.3.2.3 - 3. Treatment Injury in Operation [Seite 325]
10.3.2.4 - 4. Costs [Seite 328]
10.3.3 - C. Professional Accountability [Seite 329]
10.3.3.1 - 1. Reporting of Medical Risks [Seite 330]
10.3.3.2 - 2. Complaints [Seite 331]
10.3.3.3 - 3. Actions for Damages [Seite 332]
10.3.3.3.1 - a. Clinical Trials [Seite 332]
10.3.3.3.2 - b. Stillbirths [Seite 333]
10.3.3.3.3 - c. Pregnancy and Unwanted Births [Seite 334]
10.3.3.3.4 - d. Informed Consent Cases [Seite 335]
10.3.3.3.5 - e. Mental Injury [Seite 336]
10.3.3.3.6 - f. Miscellaneous [Seite 336]
10.3.3.3.7 - g. Exemplary Damages [Seite 336]
10.3.4 - Conclusion [Seite 337]
10.3.4.1 - A. Adequate Compensation? [Seite 337]
10.3.4.2 - B. Defensible Boundaries? [Seite 337]
10.3.4.3 - C. Administratively Efficient? [Seite 339]
10.3.4.4 - D. Disincentive to Safety-Conscious Behavior? [Seite 340]
10.3.4.5 - E. Overview [Seite 342]
11 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in Poland [Seite 345]
11.1 - Introduction [Seite 345]
11.2 - I. Grounds for Civil Liability [Seite 349]
11.3 - II. Liability Based on Fault [Seite 362]
11.4 - III. Burden of Proof and Causation [Seite 369]
11.5 - IV. Compensation [Seite 374]
11.6 - V. Professional Liability of Doctors [Seite 388]
11.7 - Conclusion [Seite 390]
11.8 - Addendum [Seite 391]
12 - Malpractice in Scandinavia [Seite 395]
12.1 - Introduction [Seite 395]
12.2 - I. The Overall Scheme for Preventing and Redressing Medical Errors and Adverse Events [Seite 397]
12.2.1 - A. Regulatory Methods in the Nordic Health Care Systems [Seite 397]
12.2.2 - B. Compensation Systems [Seite 398]
12.2.3 - C. Liability Systems [Seite 399]
12.2.4 - D. The Relationship Between the Systems [Seite 400]
12.3 - II. The Details of the Applicable Liability and Compensation Systems [Seite 401]
12.3.1 - A. Patient Injury Compensation Systems [Seite 401]
12.3.1.1 - 1. Introduction [Seite 401]
12.3.1.2 - 2. Basis for Compensation [Seite 401]
12.3.1.2.1 - a. The Experienced Specialist Standard [Seite 401]
12.3.1.2.2 - b. The Failure of Apparatus [Seite 403]
12.3.1.2.3 - c. The Alternative Treatment Rule [Seite 404]
12.3.1.2.4 - d. The Reasonableness Rule [Seite 404]
12.3.1.2.5 - e. "Accidents" [Seite 405]
12.3.1.2.6 - f. Wrong Diagnosis [Seite 406]
12.3.1.2.7 - g. Infection [Seite 406]
12.3.1.3 - 3. Causation [Seite 406]
12.3.1.3.1 - a. The Concept of Causation in Scandinavian Law [Seite 406]
12.3.1.3.2 - b. The Problems of Causation in Malpractice Law [Seite 410]
12.3.1.3.3 - c. Relaxation of Evidence [Seite 410]
12.3.1.3.4 - d. Assessment of Damages [Seite 411]
12.4 - III. Available Empirical Data [Seite 412]
12.5 - Conclusion [Seite 413]
13 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in South Africa [Seite 415]
13.1 - I. The Overall Scheme for Preventing and Redressing Medical Errors and Adverse Events, Including Regulation, Criminal and Civil Liability, and Social and Private Insurance, and the Relationships Among These Various Systems [Seite 415]
13.1.1 - A. Regulatory Methods [Seite 415]
13.1.1.1 - 1. Government Licensing Authorities for Doctors and Hospitals [Seite 415]
13.1.1.2 - 2. Medico-Ethical Codes of Conduct [Seite 419]
13.1.1.3 - 3. Reporting of Medical Errors and Adverse Events to the Health Profession Council of South Africa [Seite 420]
13.1.2 - B. Liability Systems [Seite 421]
13.1.2.1 - 1. Contract [Seite 421]
13.1.2.2 - 2. Delict (Tort) [Seite 424]
13.1.2.3 - 3. Criminal Law [Seite 424]
13.1.2.4 - 4. Relationship Between the Liability Systems [Seite 426]
13.1.3 - C. Compensation Systems [Seite 427]
13.1.3.1 - 1. Sufficient Insurance Cover To Be Required for Private Health Establishments [Seite 431]
13.1.3.2 - 2. Private Indemnity (Medical Protection Society) [Seite 432]
13.1.4 - D. Relationships Among the Compensation Systems, the Liability Systems, and the Regulatory Systems [Seite 433]
13.2 - II. The Details of the Applicable Liability and Compensation Systems [Seite 436]
13.2.1 - A. Criteria Defining Qualification for Compensation [Seite 436]
13.2.1.1 - 1. Liability Based on Fault [Seite 436]
13.2.1.2 - 2. The Role of the South African Constitution, 1996 [Seite 438]
13.2.1.3 - 3. Nature of Damages and Compensation [Seite 439]
13.2.2 - B. Causation and "Loss of Chance" [Seite 441]
13.2.2.1 - 1. General Rules on Causation [Seite 441]
13.2.2.2 - 2. "Loss of a Chance" [Seite 443]
13.2.3 - C. Liability for Failure to Obtain Informed Consent [Seite 444]
13.2.4 - D. Matters of Proof and Gathering of Evidence [Seite 445]
13.2.4.1 - 1. Matters of Proof [Seite 445]
13.2.4.2 - a. General [Seite 445]
13.2.4.3 - b. Gathering of Evidence [Seite 449]
13.3 - III. Available Empirical Data on Medical Errors and Adverse Events, the Operation of the Systems Designed to Prevent and/or Redress such Errors and Events, and the Prevalence and Impact of Measures Designed to Reduce Medical Errors and Adverse Events, Im [Seite 450]
13.4 - IV. Attitudes and Concerns About the Liability and Compensation Systems [Seite 453]
14 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in the UK [Seite 457]
14.1 - Introduction [Seite 457]
14.2 - I. The Context of Medical Malpractice Liability [Seite 458]
14.3 - II. Recent Empirical Evidence on the Numbers and Funding of Claims [Seite 460]
14.3.1 - A. England [Seite 460]
14.3.2 - B. Scotland [Seite 463]
14.3.3 - C. Summary [Seite 464]
14.4 - III. NHS Redress Act 2006 [Seite 464]
14.5 - IV. Patients' Rights Bill in Scotland: The No-Fault Compensation Review Group Report (McLean Report) [Seite 466]
14.6 - V. Basis of Liability for Medical Injury [Seite 469]
14.6.1 - A. Contract, Tort, and Delict [Seite 469]
14.6.2 - B. The Requirements of Negligence [Seite 469]
14.6.3 - C. Duty of Care [Seite 470]
14.6.4 - D. Standard of Care [Seite 470]
14.6.5 - E. Causation [Seite 472]
14.6.5.1 - 1. Difficulties in Proving Causation in Clinical Negligence Cases [Seite 473]
14.6.5.2 - 2. The Burden of Proof [Seite 474]
14.6.5.3 - 3. The "But For" Test [Seite 474]
14.6.5.4 - 4. Cumulative Causation [Seite 475]
14.6.5.5 - 5. Material Increase in Risk [Seite 475]
14.6.5.6 - 6. Alternative Causation [Seite 475]
14.6.5.7 - 7. Reinstating McGhee: Fairchild [Seite 476]
14.6.5.8 - 8. The Scope of Fairchild and Clinical Negligence Cases [Seite 477]
14.6.5.9 - 9. Loss of a Chance [Seite 480]
14.7 - VI. Reforming the Costs of Civil Litigation in England and Wales: Implications of the Jackson Report for the Costs of Clinical Negligence and the Ministry of Justice Reform of Legal Aid [Seite 484]
14.7.1 - A. Jackson Report [Seite 484]
14.7.2 - B. Reform of Legal Aid in England and Wales [Seite 487]
14.8 - Conclusion [Seite 488]
15 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation in Global Perspective: How Does the U.S. Do It? [Seite 491]
15.1 - Introduction [Seite 491]
15.2 - I. Details of the Applicable Regulatory and Liability/Compensation Systems [Seite 494]
15.2.1 - A. Regulating the Delivery of Medical Care [Seite 494]
15.2.2 - B. Liability/Compensation Systems [Seite 495]
15.2.2.1 - 1. Fault-Based (Negligence) [Seite 495]
15.2.2.2 - 2. No-Fault Liability (Strict Liability) [Seite 501]
15.2.3 - C. Limitations on Liability/Contracting out of Liability [Seite 501]
15.2.4 - D. Immunity from Liability [Seite 503]
15.3 - II. Empirical Data on Medical Errors/Adverse Events and Malpractice Litigation [Seite 504]
15.3.1 - A. How Common Are Medical Errors and Adverse Events? [Seite 504]
15.3.2 - B. Malpractice Litigation [Seite 505]
15.3.2.1 - 1. Claiming Frequency (relative to rate of medical error/adverse events) [Seite 506]
15.3.2.2 - 2. Compensation Patterns and Time Trends [Seite 507]
15.3.2.3 - 3. Impact of Caps on Non-Economic Damages [Seite 514]
15.3.2.4 - 4. Accuracy of the Liability System [Seite 517]
15.3.2.5 - 5. Frivolous Lawsuits [Seite 519]
15.3.2.6 - 6. Cost of Medical Errors/Adverse Events [Seite 520]
15.3.2.7 - 7. Cost of the Liability System [Seite 521]
15.4 - III. Attitudes and Concerns About the Liability and Compensation Systems [Seite 523]
15.5 - IV. Why Do Things Look the Way They Do? [Seite 524]
15.6 - V. What Have We Learned by Studying Texas? [Seite 525]
15.6.1 - A. Who Decides Malpractice Cases? [Seite 525]
15.6.2 - B. Does it Matter How Much the Jury Awards in a Malpractice Case? [Seite 526]
15.6.3 - C. How Much Coverage Do Physicians Have? [Seite 526]
15.6.4 - D. Do Changes in the Tort System (i.e., increases in the number of claims, or payouts per claim) Help Explain the Malpractice Crises that Hit the United States in 2000-2003? [Seite 527]
15.6.5 - E. Impact of Tort Reforms on Claim Frequency and Payouts [Seite 528]
15.7 - Conclusion [Seite 528]
16 - Medical Malpractice and Compensation: Comparative Observations [Seite 531]
16.1 - Introduction [Seite 531]
16.2 - I. Making Sense of Diversity [Seite 534]
16.2.1 - A. A Diversity of Legal Mechanisms [Seite 534]
16.2.1.1 - 1. Liability systems [Seite 534]
16.2.1.2 - 2. Alternative compensation systems [Seite 539]
16.2.1.3 - 3. Other regulatory and complaints mechanisms [Seite 541]
16.2.2 - B. The Wider Context [Seite 544]
16.2.2.1 - 1. The substantive legal context [Seite 544]
16.2.2.2 - 2. The wider litigation process [Seite 545]
16.2.2.3 - 3. The health care context [Seite 548]
16.2.3 - C. Comparative Functional Analysis [Seite 551]
16.3 - II. Assessment of Liability-Based Approaches [Seite 553]
16.3.1 - A. Compensation [Seite 553]
16.3.1.1 - 1. Mechanisms for dealing with organizational complexity [Seite 554]
16.3.1.2 - 2. Adaptation of the Requirements of Causation and Proof [Seite 557]
16.3.1.3 - 3. Patients' Rights and Disclosure Duties [Seite 560]
16.3.2 - B. Prevention [Seite 565]
16.3.2.1 - 1. The deterrent effect of liability rules [Seite 565]
16.3.2.2 - 2. Pushing prevention too far? Defensive medicine and related issues [Seite 567]
16.3.3 - C. Accountability [Seite 568]
16.3.4 - D. Weighing the Evidence [Seite 569]
16.3.4.1 - 1. Public controversy and narratives of crisis [Seite 569]
16.3.4.2 - 2. Empirical evidence [Seite 570]
16.4 - III. Assessment of No-Fault Alternatives [Seite 573]
16.4.1 - A. Introduction [Seite 573]
16.4.2 - B. New Zealand: an exclusive no-fault regime [Seite 573]
16.4.3 - C. The Nordic Patient Insurance Schemes [Seite 575]
16.4.4 - D. France: Compensation on the Basis of National Solidarity [Seite 576]
16.4.5 - E. Comparison and Evaluation [Seite 577]
16.5 - Conclusion [Seite 579]
17 - Publications [Seite 531]