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Ivan Z. Nenadic, Matthew W. Urban, James F. Greenleaf, Mayo Clinic, USA.
Jean-Luc Gennisson, Imagerie par Résonance Magnétique Médicale et Multi-Modalités, France.
Miguel Bernal, Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana, Colombia.
Mickael Tanter, Institut Langevin ¿ Ondes et Images, ESPCI ParisTech CNRS, France.
List of Contributors xix
Section I Introduction 1
1 Editors' Introduction 3Ivan Nenadic, Matthew Urban, James Greenleaf, Jean-Luc Gennisson,Miguel Bernal, and Mickael Tanter
References 5
Section II Fundamentals of Ultrasound Elastography 7
2 Theory of Ultrasound Physics and Imaging 9Roberto Lavarello andMichael L. Oelze
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Modeling the Response of the Source to Stimuli [h(t)] 10
2.3 Modeling the Fields from Sources [p(t, x)] 12
2.4 Modeling an Ultrasonic Scattered Field [s(t, x)] 15
2.5 Modeling the Bulk Properties of the Medium [a(t, x)] 19
2.6 Processing Approaches Derived from the Physics of Ultrasound [O] 21
2.7 Conclusions 26
References 27
3 Elastography and the Continuum of Tissue Response 29Kevin J. Parker
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Some Classical Solutions 31
3.3 The Continuum Approach 32
3.4 Conclusion 33
Acknowledgments 33
References 34
4 Ultrasonic Methods for Assessment of TissueMotion in Elastography 35Jingfeng Jiang and Bo Peng
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Basic Concepts and their Relevance in Tissue Motion Tracking 36
4.3 Tracking Tissue Motion through Frequency-domain Methods 37
4.4 Maximum Likelihood (ML) Time-domain Correlation-based Methods 39
4.5 Tracking Tissue Motion through Combining Time-domain and Frequency-domain Information 44
4.6 Time-domain Maximum A Posterior (MAP) Speckle Tracking Methods 45
4.7 Optical Flow-based Tissue Motion Tracking 53
4.8 Deformable Mesh-based Motion-tracking Methods 55
4.9 Future Outlook 57
4.10 Conclusions 63
Acknowledgments 63
Acronyms 63
Additional Nomenclature of Definitions and Acronyms 64
References 65
Section III Theory of Mechanical Properties of Tissue 71
5 Continuum Mechanics Tensor Calculus and Solutions toWave Equations 73Luiz Vasconcelos, Jean-Luc Gennisson, and Ivan Nenadic
5.1 Introduction 73
5.2 Mathematical Basis and Notation 73
5.3 Solutions toWave Equations 75
References 81
6 TransverseWave Propagation in Anisotropic Media 82Jean-Luc Gennisson
6.1 Introduction 82
6.2 Theoretical Considerations from General to Transverse Isotropic Models for Soft Tissues 82
6.3 Experimental Assessment of Anisotropic Ratio by ShearWave Elastography 87
6.4 Conclusion 88
References 88
7 TransverseWave Propagation in Bounded Media 90Javier Brum
7.1 Introduction 90
7.2 TransverseWave Propagation in Isotropic Elastic Plates 90
7.3 Plate in Vacuum: LambWaves 93
7.4 Viscoelastic Plate in Liquid: Leaky LambWaves 96
7.5 Isotropic Plate Embedded Between Two Semi-infinite Elastic Solids 99
7.6 TransverseWave Propagation in Anisotropic Viscoelastic Plates Surrounded by Non-viscous Fluid 100
7.7 Conclusions 103
Acknowledgments 103
References 103
8 Rheological Model-based Methods for Estimating Tissue Viscoelasticity 105Jean-Luc Gennisson
8.1 Introduction 105
8.2 Shear Modulus and Rheological Models 106
8.3 Applications of Rheological Models 113
References 116
9 Wave Propagation in ViscoelasticMaterials 118YueWang andMichael F. Insana
9.1 Introduction 118
9.2 Estimating the Complex Shear Modulus from PropagatingWaves 119
9.3 Wave Generation and Propagation 120
9.4 Rheological Models 122
9.5 Experimental Results and Applications 124
9.6 Summary 125
References 126
Section IV Static and Low Frequency Elastography 129
10 Validation of Quantitative Linear and Nonlinear Compression Elastography 131Jean Francois Dord, Sevan Goenezen, Assad A. Oberai, Paul E. Barbone, Jingfeng Jiang,Timothy J. Hall, and Theo Pavan
10.1 Introduction 131
10.2 Methods 132
10.3 Results 134
10.4 Discussion 137
10.5 Conclusions 140
Acknowledgement 141
References 141
11 Cardiac Strain and Strain Rate Imaging 143Brecht Heyde, OanaMirea, and Jan D'hooge
11.1 Introduction 143
11.2 Strain Definitions in Cardiology 143
11.3 Methodologies Towards Cardiac Strain (Rate) Estimation 145
11.4 Experimental Validation of the Proposed Methodologies 149
11.4.1 Synthetic Data Testing 150
11.5 Clinical Applications 151
11.6 Future Developments 153
References 154
12 Vascular and Intravascular Elastography 161Marvin M. Doyley
12.1 Introduction 161
12.2 General Principles 161
12.3 Conclusion 168
References 168
13 Viscoelastic Creep Imaging 171Carolina Amador Carrascal
13.1 Introduction 171
13.2 Overview of Governing Principles 172
13.3 Imaging Techniques 173
13.4 Conclusion 187
References 187
14 Intrinsic CardiovascularWave and Strain Imaging 189Elisa Konofagou
14.1 Introduction 189
14.2 Cardiac Imaging 189
14.3 Vascular Imaging 208
Acknowledgements 219
References 219
Section V Harmonic ElastographyMethods 227
15 Dynamic Elasticity Imaging 229Kevin J. Parker
15.1 Vibration Amplitude Sonoelastography: Early Results 229
15.2 Sonoelastic Theory 229
15.3 Vibration Phase Gradient Sonoelastography 232
15.4 CrawlingWaves 233
15.5 Clinical Results 233
15.6 Conclusion 234
Acknowledgments 235
References 235
16 Harmonic ShearWave Elastography 238Heng Zhao
16.1 Introduction 238
16.2 Basic Principles 239
16.3 Ex Vivo Validation 242
16.4 In Vivo Application 244
16.5 Summary 246
Acknowledgments 247
References 247
17 Vibro-acoustography and its Medical Applications 250Azra Alizad andMostafa Fatemi
17.1 Introduction 250
17.2 Background 250
17.3 Application of Vibro-acoustography for Detection of Calcifications 251
17.4 In Vivo Breast Vibro-acoustography 254
17.5 In VivoThyroid Vibro-acoustography 259
17.6 Limitations and Further Future Plans 260
Acknowledgments 261
References 261
18 Harmonic Motion Imaging 264Elisa Konofagou
18.1 Introduction 264
18.2 Background 264
18.3 Methods 267
18.4 Preclinical Studies 273
18.5 Future Prospects 277
Acknowledgements 279
References 279
19 ShearWave Dispersion Ultrasound Vibrometry 284Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen
19.1 Introduction 284
19.2 Principles of ShearWave Dispersion Ultrasound Vibrometry (SDUV) 284
19.3 Clinical Applications 286
19.4 Summary 291
References 292
Section VI Transient ElastographyMethods 295
20 Transient Elastography: From Research to Noninvasive Assessment of Liver Fibrosis Using Fibroscan® 297Laurent Sandrin,Magali Sasso, Stéphane Audière, Cécile Bastard, Céline Fournier,Jennifer Oudry, Véronique Miette, and Stefan Catheline
20.1 Introduction 297
20.2 Principles of Transient Elastography 297
20.3 Fibroscan 301
20.4 Application of Vibration-controlled Transient Elastography to Liver Diseases 306
20.5 Other Applications of Transient Elastography 309
20.6 Conclusion 310
References 311
21 From Time Reversal to Natural ShearWave Imaging 318Stefan Catheline
21.1 Introduction: Time Reversal ShearWave in Soft Solids 318
21.2 ShearWave Elastography using Correlation: Principle and Simulation Results 320
21.3 Experimental Validation in Controlled Media 323
21.4 Natural ShearWave Elastography: First In Vivo Results in the Liver, theThyroid, and the Brain 328
21.5 Conclusion 331
References 331
22 Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse Ultrasound 334Tomasz J. Czernuszewicz and Caterina M. Gallippi
22.1 Introduction 334
22.2 Impulsive Acoustic Radiation Force 334
22.3 Monitoring ARFI-induced Tissue Motion 335
22.4 ARFI Data Acquisition 340
22.5 ARFI Image Formation 341
22.6 Real-time ARFI Imaging 343
22.7 Quantitative ARFI Imaging 345
22.8 ARFI Imaging in Clinical Applications 346
22.9 Commercial Implementation 350
22.10 Related Technologies 350
22.11 Conclusions 351
References 351
23 Supersonic Shear Imaging 357Jean-Luc Gennisson andMickael Tanter
23.1 Introduction 357
23.2 Radiation Force Excitation 357
23.3 Ultrafast Imaging 362
23.4 ShearWave Speed Mapping 364
23.5 Conclusion 365
References 366
24 Single Tracking Location ShearWave Elastography 368Stephen A.McAleavey
24.1 Introduction 368
24.2 SMURF 370
24.3 STL-SWEI 373
24.4 Noise in SWE/Speckle Bias 376
24.5 Estimation of viscoelastic parameters (STL-VE) 380
24.6 Conclusion 384
References 384
25 Comb-push Ultrasound Shear Elastography 388Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen
25.1 Introduction 388
25.2 Principles of Comb-push Ultrasound Shear Elastography (CUSE) 389
25.3 Clinical Applications of CUSE 396
25.4 Summary 396
References 397
Section VII Emerging Research Areas in Ultrasound Elastography 399
26 Anisotropic ShearWave Elastography 401Sara Aristizabal
26.1 Introduction 401
26.2 ShearWave Propagation in Anisotropic Media 402
26.3 Anisotropic ShearWave Elastography Applications 403
26.4 Conclusion 420
References 420
27 Application of GuidedWaves for Quantifying Elasticity and Viscoelasticity of Boundary Sensitive Organs 422Sara Aristizabal, Matthew Urban, Luiz Vasconcelos, BenjaminWood,Miguel Bernal,Javier Brum, and Ivan Nenadic
27.1 Introduction 422
27.2 Myocardium 422
27.3 Arteries 426
27.4 Urinary Bladder 431
27.5 Cornea 433
27.6 Tendons 435
27.7 Conclusions 439
References 439
28 Model-free Techniques for Estimating Tissue Viscoelasticity 442Daniel Escobar, Luiz Vasconcelos, Carolina Amador Carrascal, and Ivan Nenadic
28.1 Introduction 442
28.2 Overview of Governing Principles 442
28.3 Imaging Techniques 443
28.4 Conclusion 449
References 449
29 Nonlinear Shear Elasticity 451Jean-Luc Gennisson and Sara Aristizabal
29.1 Introduction 451
29.2 Shocked Plane ShearWaves 451
29.3 Nonlinear Interaction of Plane ShearWaves 455
29.4 Acoustoelasticity Theory 460
29.5 Assessment of 4th Order Nonlinear Shear Parameter 465
29.6 Conclusion 468
References 468
Section VIII Clinical Elastography Applications 471
30 Current and Future Clinical Applications of Elasticity Imaging Techniques 473Matthew Urban
30.1 Introduction 473
30.2 Clinical Implementation and Use of Elastography 474
30.3 Clinical Applications 475
30.3.1 Liver 475
30.3.2 Breast 476
30.3.3 Thyroid 476
30.3.4 Musculoskeletal 476
30.3.5 Kidney 477
30.3.6 Heart 478
30.3.7 Arteries and Atherosclerotic Plaques 479
30.4 FutureWork in Clinical Applications of Elastography 480
30.5 Conclusions 480
Acknowledgments 480
References 481
31 Abdominal Applications of ShearWave Ultrasound Vibrometry and Supersonic Shear Imaging 492Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen
31.1 Introduction 492
31.2 Liver Application 492
31.3 Prostate Application 494
31.4 Kidney Application 495
31.5 Intestine Application 496
31.6 Uterine Cervix Application 497
31.7 Spleen Application 497
31.8 Pancreas Application 497
31.9 Bladder Application 498
31.10 Summary 499
References 499
32 Acoustic Radiation Force-based Ultrasound Elastography for Cardiac Imaging Applications 504Stephanie A. Eyerly-Webb,MaryamVejdani-Jahromi, Vaibhav Kakkad, Peter Hollender,David Bradway, andGregg Trahey
32.1 Introduction 504
32.2 Acoustic Radiation Force-based Elastography Techniques 504
32.3 ARF-based Elasticity Assessment of Cardiac Function 505
32.4 ARF-based Image Guidance for Cardiac Radiofrequency Ablation Procedures 510
32.5 Conclusions 515
Funding Acknowledgements 515
References 516
33 Cardiovascular Application of ShearWave Elastography 520Pengfei Song and Shigao Chen
33.1 Introduction 520
33.2 Cardiovascular ShearWave Imaging Techniques 521
33.3 Clinical Applications of Cardiovascular ShearWave Elastography 525
33.4 Summary 529
References 530
34 Musculoskeletal Applications of Supersonic Shear Imaging 534Jean-Luc Gennisson
34.1 Introduction 534
34.2 Muscle Stiffness at Rest and During Passive Stretching 535
34.3 Active and Dynamic Muscle Stiffness 537
34.4 Tendon Applications 539
34.5 Clinical Applications 541
34.6 Future Directions 542
References 542
35 Breast ShearWave Elastography 545Azra Alizad
35.1 Introduction 545
35.2 Background 545
35.3 Breast Elastography Techniques 546
35.4 Application of CUSE for Breast Cancer Detection 548
35.5 CUSE on a Clinical Ultrasound Scanner 549
35.6 Limitations of Breast ShearWave Elastography 551
35.7 Conclusion 552
Acknowledgments 552
References 552
36 Thyroid ShearWave Elastography 557Azra Alizad
36.1 Introduction 557
36.2 Background 557
36.3 Role of Ultrasound and its Limitation inThyroid Cancer Detection 557
36.4 Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy (FNAB) 558
36.5 The Role of Elasticity Imaging 558
36.6 Application of CUSE onThyroid 561
36.7 CUSE on Clinical Ultrasound Scanner 561
36.8 Conclusion 563
Acknowledgments 564
References 564
Section IX Perspective on Ultrasound Elastography 567
37 Historical Growth of Ultrasound Elastography and Directions for the Future 569Armen Sarvazyan andMatthewW. Urban
37.1 Introduction 569
37.2 Elastography Publication Analysis 569
37.3 Future Investigations of Acoustic Radiation Force for Elastography 574
37.3.1 Nondissipative Acoustic Radiation Force 574
37.3.2 Nonlinear Enhancement of Acoustic Radiation Force 575
37.3.3 SpatialModulation of Acoustic Radiation Force Push Beams 575
37.4 Conclusions 576
Acknowledgments 577
References 577
Index 581
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