Terahertz Metrology

Name: Terahertz Metrology
Brand: Artech House
Price: 193.99 EUR
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Mira Naftaly(Herausgeber*in)

Artech House (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 1. Januar 2014

378 Seiten

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978-1-60807-777-9 (ISBN)

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Inhalt

Intro
Terahertz Metrology
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
1 Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers
1.1 Pulsed Terahertz Time-Domain Spectometers
1.1.1 Principles of Operation
1.1.2 Photoconductive Emitters and Detectors
1.1.3 Optical Rectification
1.1.4 Electro-Optic Detection
1.1.5 Terahertz Air-Based Coherent Detection
1.1.6 Cherenkov (Tilted Wavefront) Emitters and Detectors
1.2 Continuous-Wave Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometer and Microwave Photonics
1.2.1 Principles and Operation
1.2.2 Types of Continuous-Wave Terahertz Emitters and Detectors
1.3 Time-Domain Spectrometer Configurations
1.3.1 Transmission
1.3.2 Reflection
1.3.3 Attenuated Total Reflection
1.3.4 Asynchronous Optical Sampling
1.3.5 Substrate Lenses
1.4 Commercial Systems
References
2 Parameter Extraction in Time-Domain Spectrometers
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Material Properties and Wave Propagation
2.2.1 Complex Refractive Index and Complex Permittivity
2.2.2 Plane Wave Propagation Across an Interface-Fresnel Equations
2.2.3 Plane Wave Propagation Through a Dielectric Slab
2.2.4 Fabry-Pérot Effect
2.3 Extracting Optical Parameters from Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers Data
2.3.1 Transmission-mode Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers: Approximation
2.3.2 Transmission-Mode Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers: Exact Solution
2.3.3 Reflection-Mode Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers: Single Reflection
2.3.4 Reflection-Mode Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers: Double Reflection
2.3.5 Attenuated Total Reflection
2.4 Preprocessing and Postprocessing of Data
2.4.1 Signal Averaging in the Time and Frequency Domains
2.4.2 Signal Denoising
2.4.3 Phase Unwrapping
2.5 Sample Requirements
2.5.1 Sample Thickness
2.5.2 Lateral Dimensions of Samples
2.5.3 Loss: Absorption, Scattering, Diffraction
References
3 Metrology for Time-Domain Spectrometers
3.1 Performance Parameters: Sensitivity, Resolution, Precision, Accuracy, Dynamic Range, and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
3.2 Dynamic Range and Signal-to-Noise Ratio of Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrometers
3.3 System Performance Limits Due to Dynamic Range and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
3.3.1 Frequency Resolution
3.3.2 Measurement Bandwidth
3.4 Sources of Random Noise
3.4.1 Amplitude
3.4.2 Phase
3.5 Systematic Errors
3.5.1 Alignment Errors
3.5.2 Focal Plane Defocusing
3.5.3 Delay Line Errors
3.6 Terahertz Beam Profile
References
4 Evaluation of Uncertainty in Time-Domain Spectroscopy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Method of Uncertainty Evaluation
4.2.1 General Definitions
4.2.2 Evaluation of Random and Systematic Errors
4.2.3 Propagation and Combination of Measurement Uncertainty
4.2.4 Measurement with Resolution Limit
4.3 Sources of Uncertainty in Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy
4.3.1 Random and Systematic Errors in Amplitude
4.3.2 Random and Systematic Errors in Sample Thickness
4.3.3 Random and Systematic Errors in Sample Alignment
4.3.4 Systematic Error in the Approximated Transfer Function
4.3.5 Systematic Error Due to Reflections
4.3.6 Systematic Error in Physical Constants
4.3.7 Uncertainty in Optical Constants: A Combination of Variances
4.4 Practical Implementation
References
5 Metrology for Fourier Transform Spectrometers
5.1 Spectrometer Configurations
5.1.1 Michelson
5.1.2 Mach-Zender
5.1.3 Polarized Fourier Transform Spectrometer (Martin-Pupplett Interferometer)
5.1.4 Modes of Operation: Step and Integrate or Fast Scanning
5.1.5 Moving Stage
5.1.6 General Fourier Transform Spectrometer Advantages
5.2 Fourier Transform Spectrometer Metrology
5.2.1 Encoders, Synchronizing, and Time-Stamping
5.2.2 Instrument Line Function: A Spectral Resolution Limitation
5.2.3 Apodization
5.2.4 Cosine and Sine Terms and Phase Correction Techniques
5.2.5 Achievable Spectral Resolution (Commercial and State of the Art)
5.3 Sample Measurement Parameter Recovery
5.3.1 Thin Sample Approximation: Lossless Case
5.3.2 Dispersive Medium
5.3.3 Thick Sample Analysis (or Noncollimated Measurement)
5.3.4 Absorption Coefficients
5.4 Sources of Noise and Uncertainties
5.4.1 Time-Domain Errors
5.4.2 (Software) Noise Reduction Techniques
References
6 Terahertz Spectrometer Calibration
6.1 Why Calibrate Terahertz Spectrometers?
6.2 Frequency Calibration
6.2.1 Gases
6.2.2 Solids
6.2.3 Resonant Mesh Filters
6.2.4 Etalons
6.2.5 Summary of Frequency Calibration Standards
6.3 Amplitude Linearity Calibration
6.4 Reflection Standards
References
7 Terahertz Imaging
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Image Resolution of a Terahertz Imaging System
7.3 Data Analysis in the Far Field
7.4 Imaging Thin LayersImaging applications are frequently concerned
7.5 Spatial Resolution Tests
7.6 Near-Field Imaging
7.7 Chemical Imaging
7.8 Focal Plane Array Microbolometer Cameras
7.9 Conclusions
References
8 Metrology for Vector Network Analyzers
8.1 Vector Network Analyzers
8.1.1 The Role of a Network Analyzer
8.1.2 Scattering Parameters
8.1.3 Vector Network Analyzer Systems
8.1.4 Extender Heads
8.1.5 Good Practice Tips
8.2 Metallic Waveguides
8.2.1 Basic Properties
8.2.2 Dispersion
8.2.3 Standardized Sizes and Frequency Ranges
8.2.4 Flanges/Interfaces
8.2.5 Good Practice Tips
8.3 Calibration Standards and Methods
8.3.1 Calibration: General Principles
8.3.2 Types of Calibration Standard
8.3.3 One-Port Calibration Methods
8.3.4 Two-Port Calibration Methods
8.3.5 Good Practice Tips
8.4 Errors and Uncertainties
8.4.1 Main Sources of Measurement Error
8.4.2 Typical Sizes of Errors
8.4.3 Connection Repeatability
8.4.4 System Verification
8.4.5 Good Practice Tips
8.5 Concluding Remarks
References
9 Terahertz Optics
9.1 Terahertz Optical Materials
9.1.1 Transparency at Terahertz Frequencies
9.1.2 Inorganic Crystals for Terahertz Optics
9.1.3 Polymers for Terahertz Optics
9.2 Metal Reflectivities
9.3 Gaussian Optics
9.3.1 Gaussian Beams
9.3.2 Parabolic Mirrors
9.4 Dichroic Optical Elements
9.4.1 Terahertz Transparent/Visible Opaque
9.4.2 Terahertz Opaque/Visible Transparent
9.4.3 Terahertz Reflective/Visible Transparent
9.4.4 Terahertz Transparent/Visible Reflective
9.5 Wire-Grid Polarizers
9.6 Antireflection Coatings
9.7 Photonic Crystal Fibers and Terahertz Waveguides
References
10 Terahertz Laser Sources
10.1 Optically Pumped Gas Lasers
10.2 P-Germanium Laser
10.3 Quantum Cascade Lasers
10.4 Pulsed Difference Frequency Generation
10.5 High-Resolution Frequency Measurements Using Continuous-Wave Difference Frequency Generation
10.6 Optical Parametric Oscillators
10.7 Free Electron Lasers
References
11 Electronic Sources of Terahertz Radiation and Terahertz Detectors
11.1 Introduction and Scope
11.2 Electronic Sources of Terahertz Radiation: Introduction and Terminology
11.3 Vacuum Electronic Sources
11.3.1 Backward Wave Oscillators
11.3.2 Extended Interaction Klystrons
11.4 Solid-State Devices
11.4.1 Gunn Diodes and IMPATT Oscillators and Amplifiers
11.4.2 Transistor Amplifiers
11.5 Frequency Multiplied Sources
11.6 Source Characteristics Summary
11.7 Detectors of Terahertz Radiation: Introduction and Terminology
11.8 Incoherent Detectors
11.8.1 Golay Cell
11.8.2 Pyroelectric Detectors
11.8.3 Room-Temperature Bolometers
11.8.4 Cryogenic Bolometers
11.8.5 Photoconductive Detectors
11.8.6 Semiconductor Diode Rectifiers
11.8.7 Thermopiles
11.8.8 Incoherent Detector Summary
11.9 Coherent Detectors: Introduction
11.9.1 Schottky Diode Mixers
11.9.2 Frequency Measurement
11.10 Detector Summary
11.11 Laboratory Practice
11.12 Emerging Technologies
11.13 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix A:Frequency and WavelengthUnit Conversion
Appendix B:Tips on Fourier Transform
B.1 Number of Points Required for Fast Fourier Transform
B.2 Sampling Interval and Undersampling
B.3 Time-Domain Peak Width and Spectral Bandwidth
B.4 Time-Domain Echoes and Spectral Oscillations
List of Contributors
About the Editor
Index

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