Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing

Name: Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing | Science and Applications
Brand: Wiley-Blackwell
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Science and Applications

Enrique J. Lavernia Kaka Ma Julie M. Schoenung James F. Shackelford Baolong Zheng(Autor*in)

Wiley-Blackwell (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 1. Februar 2024

608 Seiten

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Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing

Overview of successful pathways for producing metal powders for additive manufacturing of high-performance metallic parts and components with tailored properties

Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing introduces the readers to the science and technology of atomized metal powders beyond empirical knowledge and the fundamental relationships among the chemistry, microstructure, and morphology of atomized metallic powders and their behavior during additive manufacturing.

The text sets a foundation of the underlying science that controls the formation and microstructure of atomized metallic droplets, including the relations among the properties of metallic powders, their performance during the manufacturing processes, and the resulting products.

Other topics covered include the influence of powder on defect formation, residual stress, mechanical behavior, and physical properties. The concluding two chapters encompass considerations of broader societal implications and overarching themes, including the exploration of alternative feedstock materials, economic analysis, and sustainability assessment. These chapters offer valuable perspectives on the prospective trajectory of the field.

Written by a team of experienced and highly qualified professors and academics, Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing includes information on:

* Atomization techniques such as Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA), Electrode Induction Melting Gas Atomization (EIMGA), and Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP)
* Atomization science and technology, covering control of atomization parameters, powder size distribution, effect of processing variables, and theoretical models of atomization
* Heat transfer and solidification of droplets, covering nucleation, microstructure development, and important thermal and solidification conditions during atomization
* Atomization of Al, Fe, Ni, Co, Ti, and high entropy alloys, as well as composite powders for additive manufacturing, and guidelines for atomization equipment and powder handling
* Fundamental processing principles in a variety of metal additive manufacturing processes
* Powder characteristics and requirements for different additive manufacturing processes
* Effect of powder chemistry and physical characteristics on additive manufacturing processes, and the microstructure and properties of the built parts
* Evaluation of alternative feedstock sources for metal additive manufacturing, beyond gas atomized powder
* Economic and sustainability perspectives on powder production and additive manufacturing

Metallic Powders for Additive Manufacturing is an excellent combination of rigorous fundamentals and a practice-oriented and forward-looking resource on the subject for materials scientists and practicing engineers seeking to understand, optimize, and further develop the field of powder production and additive manufacturing.

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Inhalt

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
About the Authors
Preface
Acknowlegments
Part I Atomization of Metallic Powder
Chapter 1 Overview of Atomization Techniques
1.1 History of Metallic Powder and Atomization Techniques
1.1.1 Metal Powders
1.1.2 Atomizer Designs
1.2 Melt Atomization
1.3 Gas Atomization (GA)
1.4 Vacuum Induction Gas Atomization (VIGA)
1.5 Electrode Induction Melting Gas Atomization (EIMGA)
1.6 Plasma Rotating Electrode Process (PREP)
1.7 Spark Plasma Discharge Spheroidization (SPDS)
1.8 Plasma Induction Gas Atomization (PIGA)
1.9 Plasma-Atomized Wire (PAW)
1.10 Water Atomization (WA)
1.11 Summary
References
Chapter 2 Atomization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Atomization Technology
2.2.1 Energy Consumption During Atomization
2.2.2 Molten Metal Atomization Methods
2.2.3 Subsonic Gas Atomization
2.2.4 Supersonic Gas Atomization
2.2.5 Ultrasonic Gas Atomization (USGA)
2.2.6 Centrifugal Atomization
2.2.7 Mono-sized Droplet Atomization
2.3 Formation of Droplets
2.3.1 Regimes of Liquid Breakup
2.3.2 Mechanisms of Atomization
2.3.3 Atomization of Cylindrical Liquids
2.3.4 Atomization of Liquid Sheets
2.3.5 Droplet Formation Under Conventional Gas Atomization Conditions
2.3.6 Droplet Formation During Centrifugal Atomization
2.4 Control of Atomization Parameters
2.4.1 Classification of Processing Variables
2.4.2 Factors Affecting Metal Flow Rate
2.4.3 Metal Flow Rate
2.4.4 Gas Flow Rate and Velocity
2.5 Powder Size Distribution
2.5.1 Powder Size
2.5.2 Size Distribution
2.6 Effect of Processing Variables
2.6.1 Important Atomization Variables
2.6.2 Atomization Pressure
2.6.3 Liquid Flow Rate
2.6.4 Gas Velocity
2.6.5 Gas Flow Rate
2.6.6 Mechanical Disturbances
2.6.7 Physical Properties of Atomization Gas
2.6.8 Liquid Viscosity
2.6.9 Liquid Surface Tension
2.6.10 Fluid Temperature
2.6.11 Solidification Event
2.6.12 Apex Angle
2.6.13 Variables in Centrifugal Atomization
2.7 Theoretical Models of Atomization
2.7.1 Breakup of Liquid Rods or Fragments
2.7.2 Formation of Droplets by Sheet Breakup
2.8 Empirical Models
2.8.1 Nukiyama and Tanasawa Analysis
2.8.2 Wigg Analysis
2.8.3 Kim and Marshall Analysis
2.8.4 Schmitt Analysis
2.8.5 Weiss and Worsham Analysis
2.8.6 Lubanska Analysis
2.9 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 3 Heat Transfer and Solidification of Droplets
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Important Thermal and Solidification Conditions
3.2.1 Thermal Conditions
3.2.2 Solidification Considerations
3.3 Heat Transfer
3.3.1 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
3.3.2 Heat Transfer Coefficient
3.3.3 Gas Velocity
3.3.4 Droplet Velocity
3.4 Nucleation
3.4.1 Homogeneous Nucleation
3.4.1.1 Free Energy of Nucleation
3.4.1.2 Nucleation Rate
3.4.1.3 Homogeneous Undercooling
3.4.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation
3.4.2.1 Heterogeneous Nucleants
3.4.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation Undercooling
3.4.2.3 Distribution of Nucleants
3.5 Solidification of Droplets
3.5.1 Temperature Distribution in Droplets
3.5.2 Newtonian Solidification
3.5.3 Cooling Rate
3.5.4 Solidification Time
3.5.5 Interfacial Velocity
3.5.5.1 Equilibrium Solidification
3.5.5.2 Dynamic Solidification
3.5.5.3 Stepwise Growth
3.5.5.4 Experimentally Determined Interfacial Velocities
3.6 Microstructural Development
3.6.1 Solidification Morphology
3.6.2 Microstrutural Refinement
3.6.2.1 Dendrite Arm Spacing
3.6.2.2 Grain Size
3.6.3 Phase Selection
3.6.4 Solute Redistribution
3.7 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 4 Composite Powders for Additive Manufacturing
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fabrication Methods
4.2.1 Atomization and Co-injection
4.2.2 Atomization of Premixed MMCs
4.2.3 Reactive Atomization
4.2.3.1 Gas-Liquid Interactions
4.2.3.2 Liquid-Liquid Interactions
4.2.3.3 Liquid-Solid Interactions
4.3 Incorporation of Reinforcements During Co-injection
4.3.1 Incorporation Behavior of Reinforcements
4.3.2 Penetration of Semiliquid Droplets
4.3.2.1 Energy Balance
4.3.2.2 Force Balance
4.3.2.3 Combined Energy and Force Balance
4.3.2.4 Penetration Depth
4.3.2.5 Particle Type, Morphology, and Solid Fraction
4.3.3 Penetration of Solid Droplets
4.4 Particle Behavior During Solidification
4.4.1 Engulfment of Reinforcements by Solid-Liquid Interface
4.4.1.1 Mass Balance
4.4.1.2 Force Balance
4.4.1.3 Thermal Field
4.4.1.4 Thermal Field and Force Balance
4.4.1.5 Engulfment During Droplet Solidification
4.4.2 Mechanical Entrapment of Reinforcements by Solidification Fronts
4.4.3 Reinforcement-Induced Nucleation
4.4.3.1 Free Energy Effects
4.4.3.2 Thermal Effects
4.5 Other Methods for Fabricating MMC Powders
4.5.1 Mechanical Milling and Cryomilling
4.5.2 Surface Coating
4.5.3 Reaction Synthesis
4.6 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 5 Diagnostic and Characterization Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Flow Visualization Techniques
5.3 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
5.4 Particle Counting, Sizing, and Velocity Probe (PCSV-P)
5.5 High-Speed Cinematography/Video
5.6 High-Speed Off-Axis Holographic Cinematography
5.7 Infrared Thermal Imaging
5.8 Phase Doppler Particle Analysis (PDPA)
5.9 Surface Ionization For Monitoring Particles (SIMP)
5.10 Intelligent Sensors
5.11 Summary
References
Chapter 6 Atomization Improvements for Additive Manufacturing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Gas and Metal Flow Rates
6.3 Gas Velocity
6.4 Physical Characteristics of the Gas and Melt
6.5 Powder Size Distribution and Other Variables
6.6 Powder Morphology
6.7 Powder Satellites
6.8 Powder Porosity
6.9 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 7 Atomization of Alloys
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Aluminum-Based Alloys and Powders
7.2.1 Al-Based Alloy Powders
7.2.2 Al-Si Alloys
7.2.3 Al-Cu Alloys
7.2.4 Al-Transition Metal Alloys
7.2.5 Al-Li Alloys
7.2.6 Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloys
7.3 Iron-Based Alloys and Powders
7.3.1 Fe-Based Alloy Powders
7.3.2 Stainless Steels
7.3.3 Tool Steels
7.3.4 Other Iron-Based Materials
7.4 Nickel-Based Alloys and Powders
7.4.1 Ni-Based Alloy Powders
7.4.2 Inconel Alloys
7.4.3 René Alloys
7.4.4 Other Superalloys
7.5 Titanium-Based Alloy and Powders
7.5.1 Ti-Based Alloys
7.5.2 Ti-Based Alloy Powders
7.6 Cobalt-Based Alloys and Powder
7.6.1 Co-Based Alloys
7.6.2 Co-Based Alloy Powders
7.7 High-Entropy Alloys and Powders
7.7.1 High-Entropy Alloys
7.7.2 High-Entropy Alloy Powders
7.8 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Part II Powders in Additive Manufacturing
Chapter 8 Overview of Metal Additive Manufacturing Technologies
8.1 History of Metal Additive Manufacturing Techniques
8.2 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
8.2.1 PBF Processing Principles
8.2.2 Feedstock Powder for PBF
8.2.3 Post-processing After PBF
8.3 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
8.3.1 DED Processing Principles
8.3.2 Feedstock Powder for DED
8.3.3 Post-processing After DED
8.4 Metal Binder Jetting
8.4.1 BJT Processing Principles
8.4.2 Feedstock Powder for BJT
8.4.3 Post-processing After BJT
8.5 Sheet Lamination (SHL)
8.6 Summary
References
Chapter 9 Powder-Laser-Melt Pool Interactions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Laser and Laser-Material Interactions
9.2.1 Laser-Matter Interactions
9.2.2 Laser-Material Processing
9.3 Laser-Material Interactions During DED Processing
9.3.1 Inflight Particle Heating
9.3.2 Thermal Behavior of Melt Pool
9.3.3 Interactions Between Particles and Melt Pool
9.4 Laser-Material Interactions During PBF Processing
9.4.1 Powder Layer Characteristics and Spreading
9.4.2 Laser Beam-Powder Interactions
9.4.3 Spatter and Denudation Formation
9.4.4 Powder Degradation
9.5 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 10 Influence of Powder Chemistry on Additive Manufacturing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Alloy Compositions
10.3 Impurities and Segregation
10.4 High Entropy Alloys (Multi-Principal Element Alloys)
10.5 Metal Matrix Composites
10.6 In-Situ Alloying (In-Process Alloying)
10.7 Summary
References
Chapter 11 Physical Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Characterization of Physical Powder Properties
11.2.1 Powder Sampling
11.2.2 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution
11.2.3 Particle Morphology
11.2.4 Powder Flow Characteristics
11.3 Powder Production Methods
11.3.1 Gas Atomization
11.3.2 Water Atomization
11.3.3 Mechanical Milling
11.4 Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery
11.5 Influence of Powder Production Methods and Parameters On Powder Properties and Additive Manufacturing
11.6 Influence of Powder Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery on Powder Characteristics and Additive Manufacturing
11.7 Postproduction Methods for Treating Powders
11.8 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 12 Microstructure Evolution and Powder Effects
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Grain Structure and Phase Composition
12.2.1 Columnar-to-Equiaxed Transition (CET)
12.2.2 Phase Composition
12.3 Solidification Kinetics
12.4 Solid-State AM
12.5 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 13 Defect Formation and Powder Effects
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Porosity
13.3 Cracking and Delamination
13.4 Interfacial Structure and Grain Size
13.5 Segregation
13.6 Surface Roughness
13.7 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 14 Residual Stress and Powder Effects
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Measuring Residual Stress
14.3 Powder Characteristics
14.4 Pre-processing Heat Treatment
14.5 Process Parameters
14.6 Post-processing Treatments
14.7 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 15 Physical and Chemical Behavior and Powder Effects
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Density
15.3 Surface Appearance
15.4 Elastic and Plastic Deformation
15.5 Hardness
15.6 Fracture and Fatigue
15.7 Corrosion and Wear
15.8 Oxidation
15.9 Summary
References
Chapter 16 Economic and Sustainability Assessments of Powder Production and Additive Manufacturing
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Resource Utilization
16.2.1 Materials Utilization
16.2.2 Energy Utilization
16.2.3 Other Resources
16.3 Economic Assessment
16.3.1 Cost Breakdown and Models
16.3.2 Supply Chain Effects
16.4 Sustainability Assessments
16.4.1 Hazard Traits of Metals and Occupational Exposure Potential
16.4.2 Life Cycle Assessment of Environmental Impact
16.5 Summary
Nomenclature
References
Chapter 17 Future Directions and Challenges
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Future Directions in the Atomization of Powders
17.2.1 Technology Improvements
17.2.2 Custom Alloys and Composites
17.2.3 Additive Manufacturing
17.3 Future Directions and Challenges in the Additive Manufacturing of Metal Alloys
17.3.1 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
17.3.2 Novel Structures
17.3.3 Hybrid Manufacturing
17.3.4 Diagnostic Methods
17.3.5 Future Challenges
17.4 Summary
References
Index
EULA

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