Environmental Calculations

Name: Environmental Calculations | A Multimedia Approach
Brand: Wiley-AIChE
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A Multimedia Approach

Robert G. Kunz(Autor*in)

Wiley-AIChE (Verlag)

Erschienen am 10. September 2010

704 Seiten

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978-0-470-92537-9 (ISBN)

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Inhalt

Intro
Environmental Calculations A Multimedia Approach
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Introduction
1.1 Who, What, Why, and How of This Book
1.2 Potential Users
1.3 Arrangement
1.4 Truths and Myths About Environmental Control
1.5 Adequate Preparation Is the Key
1.6 A List of Do's
1.7 And At Least One Don't
1.8 Author's Supplemental Disclaimer
References
2. Basic Concepts
2.1 Basic Chemistry
2.1.1 The Atom
2.1.2 The Periodic Table
2.1.3 Valence and Balanced Chemical Equations
2.1.4 Summary of Basic Chemistry
2.2 The Ideal Gas
2.2.1 Dalton's Law
2.2.2 Amagat's Law
2.2.3 Example Problems for the Ideal Gas Law
2.3 Concentrations and Mass Flow Rates
2.3.1 Concentrations in Mass Per Unit Volume
2.3.2 Emission Factors in Mass Per Unit of Fuel Firing Rate
2.3.3 Higher and Lower Heating Values
2.3.4 Mass Row Rates
2.4 Vapor Pressure
2.4.1 What It Is
2.4.2 How to Calculate
2.5 Henry's Law
2.5.1 Gases
2.5.2 Volatile Liquids
2.5.3 Ionizing Materials: Ionic Equilibrium
2.5.4 Henry's Law Constants for Ionizing Species
2.6 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium
2.6.1 Raoult's Law
2.6.2 Systems Where Raoult's Law Does Not Apply
2.6.3 Azeotropic Systems
2.6.4 Activity Coefficients Versus Mole Fraction Plots
2.6.5 Henry's Law Constants from Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficients
2.6.6 Rigorous Vapor-Liquid Equilibria for the Air-Water System
2.7 Energy Balances and Heat Transfer
2.7.1 Addition or Subtraction of Energy with No Change of Phase
2.7.2 Latent Heat
2.7.3 Heat Transfer
2.8 A Smattering of Statistics
2.8.1 Characterizations of the Center of a Distribution
2.8.2 Characterization of the Spread of a Distribution
2.8.3 The Rolling Average
2.8.4 Probability Density Functions: The Normal Distribution
2.8.5 Test for a Normal Distribution
2.8.6 The Log-Normal Distribution
2.8.7 Other Statistical Applications
References
3. Air Combustion
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Combustion
3.2.1 Combustion Inputs and Outputs
3.3 Fuel
3.3.1 Fuel Heating Values
3.4 Air
3.5 Water
3.5.1 Estimation of Combustion Air Moisture
3.6 Combustion Calculations from Basic Principles
3.6.1 Pure O2: Stoichiometric Case
3.6.2 Pure O2: Excess O2 Case
3.6.3 Case Using Pure O2 to Obtain a Specified O2 Concentration in the Flue Gas
3.6.4 Stoichiometric Case Using Dry Air
3.6.5 Percent Excess Air Case Using Dry Air
3.6.6 The Case of a Specific Excess O2 Concentration in the Flue Gas Using Dry Atmospheric Air
3.6.7 Stoichiometric Case Using Moist Air
3.6.8 Excess Air Case Using Moist Air
3.6.9 The Case of a Specific Excess O2 in the Flue Gas
3.7 Flue Gas
3.8 Combustion Calculations Based on EPA Method 19 F Factors
3.9 Combustion Problems: Major Species in the Flue Gas
3.9.1 Relationship Between Percent Excess Air and Percent O2 in the Flue Gas
3.10 Adiabatic Flame Temperature
3.11 Estimation of Pollutant Emissions
3.12 The Stack Test
3.12.1 Test Methods and Calculations
3.12.2 Air Infiltration
3.13 Continuous Emission Monitoring Systems
3.14 Miscellaneous Sources of Air Emissions
3.14.1 Fugitive Emissions
3.14.2 Cooling Towers
3.14.3 Other Sources of Fugitive Emissions
3.14.4 Organic Liquid Storage Tanks
3.14.5 Emergency Diesel Generator and Fuel Oil Tank
3.14.6 Organic Chemical Vent Stream
3.14.7 Monoethanolamine (MEA) Emissions
References
4. Air Control Devices
4.1 Overview
4.2 Flares
4.2.1 Flare Operation
4.2.2 Flare Emissions
4.3 Selective Catalytic Reduction
4.3.1 SCR Equations
4.3.2 SCR Operation
4.4 Selective Noncatalytic Reduction
4.4.1 SNCR Design and Operation
4.4.2 SNCR Performance
4.4.3 SNCR plus SCR
4.5 Flue Gas Recirculation
4.5.1 FGR Performance
4.5.2 FGR Data Analysis
4.6 Water/Steam Injection into Combustion Gas Turbine
4.6.1 Emissions and Abatement
4.6.2 Permitting
4.7 Low-Temperature Oxidation (Ozone Reaction/Scrubbing)
4.7.1 Background
4.7.2 Process Description
4.7.3 Chemical Reactions
4.7.4 Ozone to NOx Ratio
4.7.5 Possible Problem Areas
4.7.6 Demonstration on Natural-Gas Fired Boiler
4.8 Paniculate Removal
4.9 Flue Gas Scrubbing
4.10 Atmospheric Dispersion
4.10.1 Atmospheric Conditions-Stability
4.10.2 Atmospheric Conditions-Wind Speed and Air Temperature
4.10.3 Characteristics of the Emission
4.10.4 Good Engineering Practice (GEP) Stack Height
4.10.5 Dispersion Modeling Calculations
4.10.6 Stack Draft
References
5. Water/Wastewater Composition
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concentrations Expressed as mg/L as CaCO3
5.2.1 Balancing a Typical Water Analysis
5.2.2 Calculation of Conductivity
5.3 Dissolved Oxygen
5.4 Nonspecific Indicators of Water Pollution
5.4.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
5.4.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand
5.4.3 Permanganate Oxygen Demand Test
5.4.4 Total Organic Carbon
5.5 BOD, COD, and TOC in Industrial Wastewater
5.6 Domestic Wastewater (Also known as Sewage)
5.6.1 Septic Tanks
5.7 Dissolved Oxygen Concentration in a Receiving Stream
5.8 Alkalinity
5.8.1 Indicators Used in Alkalinity Titrations
5.8.2 Alkalinity of Natural Waters
5.9 The Nitrogen Cycle
5.9.1 Kinetic Analysis of Organic Nitrogen Decomposition
5.9.2 Ammonia-Nitrogen
5.9.3 Ammonia Ionization
5.10 Chlorination/Dechlorination
5.10.1 Chlorine in Solution
5.10.2 Oxidizing Power of Chlorine-Containing Chemicals
5.10.3 Breakpoint Chlorination
5.10.4 Dechlorination
5.10.5 The Sulfurous Acid System
5.11 Petroleum Oil
5.12 Cooling Water Operations
5.13 Boiler Operations
5.13.1 Dissolved Solids Removal from Boiler Feedwater
5.13.2 Deaeration
5.13.3 Boiler Blowdown
5.13.4 Addition of Treatment Chemicals
5.13.5 Boiler Wastewater Composition
References
6. Water/Wastewater Hydraulics
6.1 Measurement of Effluent Flow
6.1.1 The Weir
6.1.2 Flumes
6.2 Flow in Rivers and Streams
6.2.1 Pitot Tube
6.2.2 Current Meter
6.2.3 Tracer Techniques
6.2.4 Calculation of Open-Channel Flow
6.3 Meeting Water Quality Limits
6.3.1 Low-Row Conditions
6.3.2 Discharge Under No-Flow or Low-Flow Conditions
6.4 Groundwater Flow
6.5 Storm Water Calculations
6.5.1 The Rational Method
6.5.2 Coefficient
6.5.3 Intensity
6.5.4 Criteria for Storm Water Design
6.5.5 Time of Concentration
6.6 Back to the Manning Equation
6.6.1 Rectangular Channels
6.6.2 Circular Channels/Pipe
References
7. Water/Wastewater Draining of Tanks
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Time to Drain Tanks
7.2.1 Vertical Tank of Constant Cross Section
7.2.2 (Vertical) Cone-Shaped Tank
7.2.3 Spherical Tank
7.2.4 Spheroidal or Ellipsoidal Tank
7.2.5 Vertical Cylindrical Tank with Cone Bottom
7.2.6 Vertical Cylindrical Tank with Hemispherical Bottom
7.2.7 Vertical Cylindrical Tank with Ellipsoidal Bottom
7.2.8 Vertical Cylindrical Tank with Dished Bottom
7.2.9 Vertical Tank of Elliptical Cross Section with Ellipsoidal Bottom
7.2.10 Horizontal Cylindrical Tank with Flat Ends
7.2.11 Horizontal Cylindrical Tank with Hemispherical Ends
7.2.12 Horizontal Cylindrical Tank with Elliptical Ends
7.2.13 Horizontal Cylindrical Tank with Dished Ends
7.2.14 Horizontal Tank with Elliptical Cross Section and Flat Ends
7.2.15 Horizontal Tank of Elliptical Cross Section with Elliptical Ends
7.3 Trajectory of the Jet from a Leaking Tank
References
8. Solid Waste
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Selected Waste Designations/Definitions
8.2.1 Coal Wastes
8.2.2 Construction/Demolition Waste/Debris
8.2.3 Garbage
8.2.4 Hazardous Waste
8.2.5 Hazardous Household Waste
8.2.6 Industrial (Solid) Waste
8.2.7 Infectious/Medical Waste
8.2.8 Liquid Waste
8.2.9 Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
8.2.10 Nuclear/Radioactive Waste
8.2.11 Refuse/Rubbish/Trash
8.2.12 Residual Waste
8.2.13 Solid Waste
8.2.14 Special Waste
8.2.15 Toxic Waste
8.2.16 Universal Waste
8.2.17 Waste Oil
8.3 Waste Analysis
8.4 Calculations for Solid/Hazardous Waste Permitting
8.4.1 Conversion of Units
8.4.2 More Unit Conversions
8.4.3 Conversion of Volume to Weight
8.4.4 Sampling of Solid Waste
8.5 Waste Incineration
8.5.1 Principal Organic Hazardous Constituents
8.5.2 Significant Figures for DRE
8.5.3 DRE Determination for POHC via a Surrogate Compound
8.5.4 MSW Incineration with AP-42 Estimated Emissions
8.5.5 Wrap-Up of MSW Problem
References
9. Noise
9.1 General
9.2 Sound Versus Noise
9.2.1 Sound Characteristics
9.3 Sound Properties
9.3.1 Loudness
9.3.2 Pitch
9.3.3 Timbre
9.4 Frequency Spectrum
9.5 The Octave
9.5.1 Octave Definition-the Musical Scale
9.5.2 Octave Band Analysis-Sound Meter
9.6 Combining Decibels
9.6.1 Decibel Addition
9.6.2 Averaging Decibels
9.6.3 Subtraction of Decibels
9.6.4 "Shortcut" Graphical Procedure
9.7 Composite Sound Level
9.7.1 Flat Weighting
9.7.2 Weighting Networks
9.7.3 A-Weighting-The dBA Scale
9.8 Speech Interference
9.9 A-Weighting Statistics
9.9.1 Statistical Definitions
9.9.2 Determination of Leq
9.9.3 Time Periods for Leq
9.9.4 Adjustments to Leq-Ldn and CNEL
9.10 Noise Regulations
9.10.1 General
9.10.2 Two Approaches-Common Law Nuisance/Qualitative Versus Quantitative
9.10.3 Adjustments to Permissible Noise Levels
9.10.4 Impulse Noises
9.10.5 Pure Tones
9.10.6 Night Versus Day
9.11 Industrial Noise
9.12 Sound Propagation from Point Source to Receptor
9.12.1 Sound Power Versus Sound Pressure
9.12.2 Sound Radiation Models
9.12.3 Attenuation of Sound over Distance
9.13 Excess Attenuation of Noise over Distance
9.13.1 Attenuation by Atmospheric Air
9.14 Highway Noise (A Line Source)
9.15 Noise Control
9.16 The Community Noise Survey
9.16.1 Datasheets
9.16.2 Effect of Wind
9.16.3 Precipitation
9.16.4 Temperature
9.16.5 Sound Meter Setting
9.16.6 Other Phenomena Encountered during Noise Surveys
References
10. Radioactive Decay
10.1 Definitions and Units
10.1.1 Definitions
10.1.2 Units of Radioactive Decay and Exposure
10.1.3 Other Measures of Dosage
10.2 Some Sources of Radioactivity
10.3 Types of Radioactive Decay
10.3.1 Alpha Particle Decay
10.3.2 Beta Particle Decay
10.3.3 Gamma Radiation
10.3.4 Other Types
10.4 Pathways of Radioactive Decay
10.4.1 Radioactive Decay-Single Reaction
10.4.2 Single-Reaction Rate of Decay
10.4.3 Parallel Decay
10.4.4 Independent, Unrelated Simultaneous Decay Reactions
10.5 Decay Series
10.5.1 Maxima and Inflection Points
10.6 Longer Decay Chains
10.6.1 Example-A Five-Member Chain
10.7 Rate of Decay in a Radioactive Series
10.7.1 Secular Equilibrium
10.7.2 Transient Equilibrium
10.7.3 No Equilibrium
10.8 A Transition from Science to the Realm of Regulatory Control
10.9 Some Notable Accidents Involving Nuclear Materials
10.10 Governmental Regulations and Licensing Procedures
10.10.1 Nuclear Regulatory Commission
10.10.2 Regulations Governing Nuclear Material
10.10.3 Waste Management Consists of Licensing
10.10.4 Licensing
10.10.5 Requirements
10.10.6 General Licenses and Generally Licensed Devices
10.10.7 Further Comments on General Licenses
10.10.8 Periodic Testing for Contamination-Wipe Tests
10.11 Radioactive Waste Disposal
10.11.1 NRC Limits
10.11.2 Radioactive Waste Disposal-Conclusion
References
Appendix A. Suggested Undergraduate Environmental Curriculum
Reference
Appendix B. Relationship among Expressions for Atmospheric Contaminants as Concentrations (ppm), Mass Flow Rates (lb/h), and Emission Factors (lb/MMBtu
B.l Summary
B.2 Concentration Limits
B.3 Mass Flow Rate Limits
B.4 Emission Factor
B.5 Conclusion
References
Appendix C. Burner NOx from Ethylene Cracking Furnaces
C.l General
C.2 Summary
C.3 Introduction
C.4 Disclaimer
C.5 Regulatory Considerations
C.6 Technical Considerations
C.7 NOx Correlation for SMR Furnace Burners
C.8 Extension of the Correlation to Ethylene Cracking Furnaces
C.8.1 Processes Are Different-A Review
C.8.2 But Combustion Is Similar
C.8.3 Firebox Temperatures Are Different
C.8.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperatures Are Both Different and Similar
C.9 NOx Correlating Equations for Ethylene Furnaces
C.10 Influence of the Variables
C.10.1 Oxygen Dependence
C.10.2 Combustion Air Temperature
C.10.3 Fuel Temperature
C.10.4 Ambient Air Humidity
C.10.5 Hydrogen Content of Methane/Hydrogen Mixtures
C.10.6 Acetylene Content of Methane and Hydrogen Fuels
C.11 Experimental Verification of NOx Predictions
C.12 Opportunities for Improvement
C.l 3 Conclusions
References
Appendix D. What Is BOD and Ho w Is It Measured?
D. 1 Summary
D.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Its Measurement
D.2.1 Overview
D.2.2 DO Measurement
D.2.3 Reproducibility
D.2.4 Wrap-Up
D.3 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Its Measurement
D.3.1 Theoretical Considerations
D.3.2 Mechanics of the BOD Test
D.3.3 BOD Experiment
D.3.4 Reproducibility
D.3.5 Wrap-Up
D.4 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Its Measurement
D.4.1 The COD Test
D.4.2 Reproducibility
D.4.3 Wrap-Up
References
Appendix E. Cooling Water Calculations
E.1 Summary
E.2 Tower Parameters
E.3 Water Parameters
E.3.1 Impurities in Cooling Water
E.3.2 pH, Alkalinity, and Hardness
E.3.3 Milligrams Per Liter as Calcium Carbonate
E.3.4 Electroneutrality
E.4 Control of Cycles of Concentration
E.5 pH Effects
E.5.1 The pH Increases with Cycles of Concentration
E.5.2 Prediction of Circulating Water pH
E.5.3 Dissolved CO 2 Is Not Exactly Constant
E.5.4 Quantity of Acid Required
E.6 Total Dissolved Solids and Conductivity
E.6.1 TDS
E.6.2 Prediction of Conductivity
E.7 Allowable Cycles of Concentration
E.7.1 Langelier Saturation Index
E.7.2 Ryznar Stability Index
E.7.3 Corrosion Ratio
E.7.4 Allowable pH Range
E.7.5 Calcium Salts
E.7.6 Calcium and Zinc Phosphate Saturation Indexes
E.7.7 Silica
E.7.8 Other Dissolved Materials
E.7.9 TDS and Conductivity
E.7.10 Suspended Solids
E.8 Example Problem
E.9 Computerized Calculations
E.10 Case Studies
References
Appendix F. Increase in Runoff from Industrial/Commercial/Urban Development: The Telltale Bridge
F.l Summary
F.2 Introduction
F.3 The Case in Point
F.4 The Bridge
F.5 Storm Water Flow in the Swale
F.6 Bottlenecks
F.6.1 At the Bridge
F.6.2 At the Culverts under Road No. 1
F.7 Continued Flooding
References
Appendix G. Water Quality Improvement for a Small River
G.1 Summary and Conclusions
G.2 Introduction
G.3 Flow of Whippany River
G.4 Water Quality of River
G.4.1 Dissolved Oxygen
G.4.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
G.5 Waste Treatment at the Whippany Paper Board Company
G.5.1 Nature of the Waste
G.5.2 Treatment Before 1964-1965
G.5.3 Effect of Early Treatment on Water Quality
G.5.4 Upgrading of Treatment Facilities
G.5.5 Effect of Improvements on Water Quality
G.5.6 Summary
G.6 Modeling the Whippany River
G.6.1 Selection of Constants
G.6.2 Theoretical Calculation of Stream Velocity Impractical
G.6.3 Velocity-Time of Travel Measurements
G.6.4 Assembling the Model
G.6.5 Results and Discussion
G.7 Postscript
References
Supplemental References for Postscript to Appendix G
Appendix H. Experimental Determination of Coefficient for Draining of Tank
H.l Summary
H.2 Description of Experiment-Equipment
H.2.1 Equipment Used
H.3 Description of Experiment-Procedure
H.4 Experimental Data
H.5 Data Analysis-Falling Head/Unsteady-State Experiment
H.6 Time to Drain the Tank
H.7 Steady-State Experiment
H.7.1 Transient Solution to Fill and Drain Problem
References
Appendix I. Noise Case Studies
1.1 Case 1-Sound Meter Readings behind a Highway Noise Barrier
1.1.1 Theory
1.1.2 Synopsis of the Measurements
1.1.3 Turnpike Noise Barriers
1.1.4 Turnpike Noise Measurements
1.1.5 Neighborhood Side of the Noise Barrier
1.1.6 Noise Measurements behind the Barrier
1.2 Case 2-Another Noise Barrier Study
1.2.1 Highway Noise Data
1.2.2 Summary of Results
1.3 Case 3-Successful Noise Permitting Procedure
1.3.1 The Project
1.3.2 Method of Execution
1.3.3 The Background Noise Survey
1.3.4 Estimate of Noise from New Equipment
1.3.5 Postconstruction Noise Survey Confirmed Compliance
References
Appendix J. Air Pollution Aspects of the Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process
J.l Summary
J.2 Introduction
J.3 FCC Process Description
J.3.1 FCC Cracking Catalyst
J.3.2 The Reactor
J.3.3 The Regenerator
J.4 Atmospheric Contaminants from the Regenerator-Origin and Treatment
J.4.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
J.4.2 Paniculate Matter (PM)
J.4.3 Sulfur Oxides (SOx)
J.4.4 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx )
J.5 Summary
References
Appendix K. Case Studies in Air Emissions Control
K.1 Summary
K.2 Addition of Steam to Reduce Burner NOx
K.3 Addition of SCR to Reduce Burner Emissions
K.4 Integration of a Furnace with Gas Turbine Exhaust
References
Appendix L. Combustion of Refinery Fuel Gas
L.l Refinery Fuel Gas
L.2 Combustion Calculations for Refinery Fuel Gas
L.3 EPA Method 19 Combustion Calculations
L.4 F Factors for Refinery Fuel Gas
L.4.1 Calculated F Factors for Published Natural Gas Compositions
L.5 Example-Use of F Factors in Combustion Calculations
L.5.1 Stoichiometric Case
L.5.2 3% Excess O2 Case
L.6 Conclusions
References
Index

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