Chemistry and Technology of Agrochemical Formulations

1 Introduction.- References.- 2 Review of major agrochemical classes and uses.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Future needs.- 2.3 World markets, 1996.- 2.4 Sales by category, 1995.- 2.5 Sales by crop, 1995.- 2.6 Sales by region, 1995.- 2.7 Herbicides.- 2.8 Insecticides.- 2.9 Fungicides.- 2.10 Plant growth regulators.- 2.11 Biological screening: discovery and development of a new agrochemical.- References.- 3 Formulation of agrochemicals.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Conventional formulations.- 3.3 New-generation formulations.- 3.4 Surfactants for agrochemicals.- 3.5 Other formulation additives.- References.- 4 Water-dispersible granules.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Manufacturing methods.- 4.3 Physical properties.- 4.4 Design: modern methods.- References.- 5 Recent developments on safer formulations of agrochemicals.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Liquid formulations.- 5.3 Controlled-release formulations.- 5.4 Water-soluble packaging.- 5.5 Dry products (water-dispersible granules).- 5.6 Adjuvants.- 5.7 Other formulation types.- 5.8 Summary and future possibilities.- References.- 6 Agrochemical formulations using natural lignin products.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Wettable powders (WP).- 6.3 Water-dispersible granules (WG).- 6.4 Suspension concentrates (SC).- 6.5 Oil-in-water emulsions (EW).- 6.6 Controlled release.- 6.7 Ultraviolet protection.- 6.8 Compatibility agents.- 6.9 Adjuvants.- 6.10 Complexing agents.- 6.11 Environmental and regulatory information.- References.- 7 Novel surfactants and adjuvants for agrochemicals.- 7.1 Polymeric surfactants and stability.- 7.2 Trends towards environmentally safer surfactants.- 7.3 Enhancing biological activity using adjuvants.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 8 Improving agrochemical performance: possible mechanisms for adjuvancy.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2Chemical composition of adjuvants.- 8.3 Mechanistic approaches for investigating adjuvancy.- 8.4 Future prospects.- Acknowledgements.- References.- 9 Packaging of agrochemicals.- 9.1 Selection of packaging types.- 9.2 Closures.- 9.3 Labelling.- 9.4 Shelf life.- 9.5 Pack design with regard to easy rinsing and disposal.- 9.6 Types of secondary packaging.- 9.7 United Nations performance tests.- 9.8 Rinsing methods.- 9.9 Closed transfer systems.- 9.10 Collection of containers after use.- 9.11 Summary of key design criteria.- 9.12 Returnable packaging systems.- 9.13 ECPA standard SVR interface.- 9.14 Future direction.- Glossary of terms and definitions.- 10 Application techniques for agrochemicals.- 10.1 Hydraulic nozzles.- 10.2 Portable sprayers.- 10.3 Tractor sprayers.- 10.4 Aerial application.- 10.5 ULV and CDA ground application.- 10.6 Fogs, mists and aerosols.- 10.7 Electrostatically charged applications.- 10.8 Chemigation.- 10.9 Granule, dust and seed treatments.- 10.10 Miscellaneous.- 10.11 Standards.- References.- 11 Regulatory requirements in the European Union.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Some basic features of 91/414/EEC.- 11.3 Overview of authorizations.- 11.4 Data requirements.- 11.5 Dossier preparation.- 11.6 Inclusion of active substances in Annex I of 91/414/EEC.- 11.7 Authorization of plant protection products.- 11.8 Transitional measures and the review programme.- 11.9 Adjuvants.- Acknowledgements.- Appendix 11.A An overview of European Community general legislation associated with plant protection products.- 12 Regulatory requirements in the USA.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Federal pesticide laws.- 12.3 EPA Office of Pesticide Programs.- 12.4 Product registration: obtaining a license to sell.- 12.5 Registration and tolerance data requirements.- 12.6 Data evaluation.- 12.7 Data protection and compensation.- 12.8 Reregistration and product defense.- 12.9 Product labeling.- 12.10 State registration requirements.- 12.11 Conclusions.- Acknowledgements.- Appendix 12.A Index of EPA study guidelines.- Appendix 12.B Sources of registration information.- Appendix 12.C Office of Pesticide Programs: senior EPA contacts.- References.- 13 Waste management and disposal of agrochemicals.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Site management responsibilities.- 13.3 Waste minimization.- 13.4 Waste types.- 13.5 Waste handling.- 13.6 Documentation and records.- 13.7 Waste disposal.- 13.8 Treatment and disposal of aqueous effluents arising from formulation and packaging of agrochemical products.- References.