Preface xxiii
1 Overview and Introduction of Polymers Used in Pharmaceuticals 1
Nikhil Rajnani, Nalini Kurup, Nikita Rajnani and Selvakumar Sambandan
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Classification of Polymers 2
1.3 Ideal Characteristics of Polymer 4
1.4 Characterization of Polymer 4
1.5 Applications of Polymers in Drug Delivery System 5
1.6 Conclusions 11
Acknowledgement 11
References 11
2 Biopolymers as Potential Carriers in the Novel Drug Delivery System 17
Madhuri D. Deshmukh, Eknath D. Ahire, Moreshwar P. Patil, Prasad Rayte, Sheetal Gosavi, Shruti S. Moarnkar and Amit Kumar Rajora
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Classification 18
2.3 Properties of Biopolymer 22
2.4 Characterization Techniques of Biopolymer 23
2.5 Frequently Studied Biopolymers 27
2.6 Future Prospective 33
2.7 Conclusion 33
Acknowledgements 34
References 34
3 Functional Polymers as Drug Carriers in Pharmaceuticals Development 41
Eknath D. Ahire, Gangadhar Magar, Shruti Morankar and Amit Kumar Rajora
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Polymers' Role in Drug Delivery 45
3.3 Biomaterials for Delivery Systems 46
3.4 Polymers for Medication Delivery 46
3.5 How Polymers Release Drugs 49
3.6 Polymeric System Selection Criteria 50
3.7 Applications 58
3.8 Conclusion and Future Trends 63
Acknowledgements 64
References 64
4 Nanopolymer for Drug Delivery 71
Anju, Mishra Prakash Shyambabu, Amit Kumar Singh and Shanti Bhushan Mishra
4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Classification of Polymer Nanoparticles 72
4.3 Polymers Used in the Manufacturing of PNPs 74
4.4 Conventionally Used Methods for Making Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPS) 75
4.5 Pros and Cons of Polymeric Nanoparticles 80
4.6 Characterizing Polymeric Nanoparticles 81
4.7 Controlled Drug Delivery Polymeric Nanoparticles 84
4.8 Applications of Polymeric Nanoparticles 85
4.9 Recent Advances in the Field of PNPs 90
4.10 Future Prospects and Challenges 93
4.11 Conclusion 94
Acknowledgement 95
References 95
5 Natural Polymers for Drug Delivery 105
Mishra Prakash Shyambabu, Mukul Maurya, Amit Kumar Singh, Pradeep Kumar Vishwakarma and Shanti Bhushan Mishra
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 General Methods of Extraction for Natural Polymers 108
5.3 Plant-Based Natural Polymers 111
5.4 Animal-Based Natural Polymers 119
5.5 Microorganism-Based Natural Polymers 123
5.6 Marine-Based Natural Polymers 127
5.7 Conclusion 131
Acknowledgement 131
References 131
6 Intelligent Drug Delivery Systems for Safe and Effective Cancer Treatment: Smart Bio-Responsive Polymers 143
Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula and Lakshmi Vineela Nalla
6.1 Introduction 144
6.2 Smart Materials with Endogenous Triggering 147
6.3 Smart Materials with External Triggers 151
6.4 Biological Perspective 154
6.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective 164
Acknowledgment 165
References 165
7 Polymers and Their Uses in Drug Delivery 181
Shilpa Amit Gajbhiye, Eknath D. Ahire, Moreshwar P. Patil, Preeti R. Meshram and Yogita M. Patil
7.1 Introduction 182
7.2 A Polymeric Drug Delivery System's Fundamentals 184
7.3 Classification of Polymers 184
7.4 Types of Polymers Used Depending Upon Their Inherent Property 186
7.5 Traditional Use of Polymers in Drug Delivery 192
7.6 Smart Polymers 192
7.7 Polymers in Novel Drug Delivery Systems 193
7.8 Recent Polymer Drug Delivery System Advances 194
7.9 Conclusion 194
Acknowledgement 195
References 195
8 Polymers in Oral Hygiene and Oral Drug Delivery 207
Kumari Supriya, Eknath D. Ahire, Amit Kumar Rajora and Shruti Morankar
8.1 Introduction 208
8.2 Oral Hygiene 208
8.3 Polymers 209
8.4 History of Oral Polymeric Materials 210
8.5 Dental Polymers Natural and Synthetic 212
8.6 The Use of Polymers in Oral Hygiene 212
8.7 Polymers' Part in the Oral Delivery of Drug 214
8.8 Oral Disease Management 217
8.9 Manufacturing of Dental Products 218
8.10 Polymers in Oral Health 218
8.11 Oral Drug Delivery System 226
8.12 Application of Polymers in Oral Dosage Forms 227
8.13 Conclusions 234
Acknowledgment 235
References 235
9 Polymers in Controlled Drug Delivery System 241
Amruta Balekundri and Eknath D. Ahire
9.1 Introduction 241
9.2 Controlled Drug Delivery 244
9.3 Mechanism of Controlled Drug Delivery System 245
9.4 Polymers in Controlled Drug Delivery System 246
9.5 Conclusion 250
Acknowledgment 250
References 250
10 Polymers: An Update on Their Use in Ocular Drug Delivery Systems and Other Recent Developments 255
Shweta H. Shahare, Hitesh V. Shahare, Yunus N. Ansari, Charulata T. Nemade, Khemchand R. Surana, Rani S. Kankate and Eknath D. Ahire
10.1 Introduction 256
10.2 Ideal Ophthalmic Drug Delivery System Characteristics 257
10.3 Routes of Administration of ODDS 257
10.4 Approaches for Ophthalmic Drug Delivery System 258
10.5 Polymers in the Delivery of Drug to the Eyes 263
10.6 Conclusion 267
Acknowledgement 267
References 267
11 Polymers and Approaches in Dental Preparations 273
Hitesh V. Shahare, Yunus N. Ansari, Eknath D. Ahire, Kavita R. Chandramore, Kshtija P. Deshmukh, Shweta H. Shahare and Deepti G. Phadtare
11.1 Introduction 273
11.2 Polymers Used in Dentistry 276
11.3 Branches of Dentistry 279
11.4 Properties of Polymers 279
11.5 Applications of Polymers in Dentistry 281
11.6 Recent Advancements in Use of Polymers in Dentistry 284
11.7 Conclusion 286
Acknowledgment 286
References 286
12 Role and Types of Polymers Used in Cosmetics 291
Shweta H. Shahare, Bhavesh B. Amrute, Hitesh V. Shahare, Nayana S. Baste, Eknath D. Ahire, Parag A. Pathade and Sandhya Borse
12.1 Introduction 291
12.2 Classification of Cosmetics 292
12.4 Polymers in Cosmetics 296
12.5 Natural Polymers 297
12.7 Synthetic Polymers 302
12.8 Conclusion 304
Acknowledgement 304
References 305
13 Potential Natural Polymers in the Modern Drug Delivery Systems 309
Maruti K. Shelar and Shubhangi V. Shekade
13.1 Introduction 310
13.2 Type of Modern Drug Delivery System 311
13.3 Conclusion 326
Acknowledgments 326
References 326
14 Polymers in Nutritional Applications 333
Shilpa Amit Gajbhiye, Eknath D. Ahire, Preeti R. Meshram and Yogita M. Patil
14.1 Introduction 333
14.2 Classification 334
14.3 Advantages 336
14.4 Disadvantages 337
14.5 Application of Nutritional Polymer 338
14.6 Current Innovative Research in the Field of Nutritional Polymer 339
14.7 Future Perception to Nutritional Polymer Research 341
14.8 Conclusion 345
Acknowledgement 345
References 346
15 Green Polymers and Their Uses in Pharmacy 349
Pavan Kumar Padarthi, Kore Kakasaheb Jagannath, Varsha Deva, Sudhahar Dharmalingam, Santosh Karajgi, V. Rao, Manchineni Prasada Rao and Senthil Prabhu Rajendran
15.1 Introduction 350
15.2 Natural (Green) Polymer 352
15.3 Future Indications 359
15.4 Conclusion 360
References 361
16 Polymers in Gene Delivery 367
Niloufer K. Kotwal, Rishi Pal, Sultana Razia, Jaffar Shaik and Meenakshi Jaiswal
16.1 Introduction 368
16.2 Application of Polymers in Gene Delivery 370
16.3 Methods for Delivering Genes 370
16.4 Polymers Used 371
16.5 Future Prospective 379
16.6 Conclusion 379
References 380
17 Introduction, Overview and Various Uses of Synthetic Polymers in Pharmacy 385
Rajesh Kumar, Jyoti Prakash, Anmol Gautam, Gaurav Dhiman, Pradeep Saha, Dhruv Dev and Mohammad Shahnaz
17.1 Introduction 385
17.2 Synthetic Polymers in Pharmaceutical Formulation Developments 388
17.3 Synthetic Polymer-Conjugates Applications in Pharmaceuticals 393
17.4 Applications 395
17.5 Future Prospects 396
17.6 Conclusion 397
References 397
18 Semiconducting Polymer 405
Senthil Prabhu Rajendran
18.1 Introduction 405
18.2 Polymers that are Conjugated as Semiconductors 408
18.3 Polymers with Semiconducting Properties 409
18.4 Applications of Semiconducting Polymers in Pharmaceutical and Medical Sciences Neural Applications 410
18.5 Conclusion 413
References 414
19 Nanostructured Polymer Systems and Pharmacy 421
K. Bhaskar Reddy, Vishal Satish Patil, P.S. Minhas, Madhusmruti Khandai, Varinder Soni, V. Ragini, Sanjesh Kumar Gotam Rathi and Dhruv Dev
19.1 Introduction 422
19.2 Nanostructured Polymers 424
19.3 Utilization of Polymeric Nanostructured Systems in the Drug Delivery System Nanocapsules 425
19.4 Future Perspective 432
19.5 Conclusion 433
References 434
20 Microstructured Polymer System and Its Application in Pharmacy 441
Anasuya Patil, Kavita Vijay, P.S. Minhas, Mahaveer Singh, Ashish Ashokkumar Jaiswal, Sandeep Sharma and Vaibhav Dagaji Aher
20.1 Introduction 442
20.2 Pharmaceutical Products Using Micro/Nanostructured Polymeric Materials 444
20.3 Polymeric Polymers as Pharmaceutical Drug Delivery Matrices 445
20.4 Methods for Preparing Nano- and Microparticles 453
20.5 Future Perspective 457
20.6 Conclusion 458
References 458
Index 467
1
Overview and Introduction of Polymers Used in Pharmaceuticals
Nikhil Rajnani1*, Nalini Kurup1, Nikita Rajnani2 and Selvakumar Sambandan2
1Department of Pharmaceutics, Principal K. M. Kundnani College of Pharmacy, Cuffe Parade, Mumbai, India
2Department of Pharmacovigilance, Cognizant Technology Solutions, Navi Mumbai, India
Abstract
Polymers are very important in the process of making pharmaceutical goods. When it comes to chemicals, polymers are known for being big and heavy. Polymers are made up of many smaller parts called monomers. These monomers are linked together by covalent bonds or other chemical reactions. When several monomer units are joined together to make a long chain polymer, this is called polymerization. Polymer nanoparticles (PNPs) are made using physical methods or direct nanosynthesis. They are then polymerized in microor nanoemulsions with nanoreactor sections. Polymers from both natural and man-made sources are used a lot in the medicinal and biomedical fields, and their use is growing quickly. Polymers are used a lot in the pharmacy business today to control how drugs are released. We will talk about this subject in more detail in the parts that follow. Other applications of polymers are packaging materials, medical equipment, and packaging aids for pharmaceuticals, such as coating agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, adjuvants, adhesives, etc. This chapter's goal is to offer a comprehensive overview of the classification of polymers, characterization, and many applications for pharmaceutical polymers in solid oral dosage forms. The several kinds of polymeric excipients are discussed, and their unique functions in oral medication administration are highlighted. This chapter may help scientists rationally use polymeric excipients, taking full advantage of their many properties and potential effects on drug delivery.
Keywords: Polymers, nanospheres, nanocapsules, polymerization, monomer
1.1 Introduction
The quest to produce pharmaceuticals that are effective and reasonably priced presents pharmaceutical businesses with ongoing difficulties in adapting and creating new and efficient production procedures. Pharmaceutical firms are continuously seeking methods to increase their efficiency and cost-effectiveness due to the fast-growing global competition [1]. In the past few years, there has been a lot of interest in making new plastics and changing their qualities to make them more useful in biology and medicine [2]. The Greek words "poly" (meaning many) and "meros" (meaning pieces) are where the word "polymer" comes from. Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller molecules known as monomers. A "polymer" is a material that is made up of many different parts. A polymer is made up of many monomers that are grouped in a certain way and are repeated [3]. Molecular weights (MWs), shapes, levels of crystallinity, polymerization, and architectures are just a few of the physical and chemical characteristics that can vary between polymers. Because these traits can be changed, especially in controlled release delivery systems, it might be possible to solve problems with drug formulation [4]. Polymers are very important in the process of making pharmacological dosage formulas. It is recognized that the physic-chemical characteristics of the polymers employed in the formulation have a crucial role in the clinical effectiveness of pharmaceutical formulations, such as oral dosage forms, implants, transdermal patches, and dispersion systems [5].
1.1.1 History of Polymer
Since ancient times, humans have used oils, resins, gums, tars, and other polymer-based materials to benefit from polymers' versatility. However, natural polymers have been employed in medicine for many centuries [6].
1.2 Classification of Polymers
Polymer can be classified based on origin and based on bio-stability (Figure 1.1) [8].
Figure 1.1 General classification of polymer.
1.2.1 Sources
Natural Polymer: Also known as biopolymers, natural polymers are polymers that naturally arise in the environment, e.g., glycogen, acacia, gelatin, agar and chitosan, proteins, albumin, keratin, carbohydrates, glycogen, starch, and cellulose [8].
Synthetic Polymers: A synthetic polymer is a polymer that has been created in a lab. These are also referred to as synthetic polymers, e.g., polyanhydrides, polyamides, and polyesters [8].
Semi-Synthetic Polymer: These are naturally occurring polymers that have undergone chemical modification, such as cellulose, cellulose nitrate, methylcellulose, hydrogenated rubber, and natural rubber [8].
1.2.2 Bio-Stability
Biodegradable: A polymer that can be broken down by naturally occurring microorganisms like bacteria and fungus is said to be biodegradable. Because they transform into physiologically inert and compatible molecules when degraded in the body, biodegradable polymers are extremely desired in their current state. Examples are polyester, proteins, and carbohydrates [9].
Non-Biodegradable: To improve the therapeutic effectiveness of a medicine, these polymers are utilized in pharmaceutical formulation. These days, these polymers are utilized in tissue engineering and medication delivery systems [9]. These substances are inert, and they completely disappear from the application location. Examples: ethyl cellulose, hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPMC), and acrylic polymers [10].
1.2.3 Polymerization
Addition Polymer: They are made from monomers linked to vinyl, olefin, and diolefin. These polymers are created by adding monomeric molecules to one another quickly and repeatedly via a chain mechanism. These polymers include polystyrene, polyethylene, and polypropylene [9].
Condensation Polymer: They are created by an intermolecular interaction involving reactive monomeric molecules with bifunctional and multifunctional functional groups, like -COOH, -NCO, -OH, and -NH2 [9].
1.2.4 Interaction with Water
Hydrogels: When placed in water, they swell but do not break down. Example: polyvinylpyrrolidone [8].
Soluble polymer: These uncross-linked polymers with a modest MW dissolve in water. Example: propylene glycol (PEG), and hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPMC) [8].
1.3 Ideal Characteristics of Polymer
- It must be environmentally friendly and inert [11].
- It should be biologically inert and non-toxic [11].
- It ought to be simple to manage [11].
- It must also be affordable and simple to make [11].
- It ought to be mechanically strong [11].
- It must be compatible with the majority of medications [11].
- It must not have a negative impact on the drug's rate of release [11].
- It must not have a propensity to accumulate in the tissue and be made of a good biodegradable substance [11].
1.4 Characterization of Polymer
- Typically, the MW, content, and thermal characteristics of polymers used in biomedical and pharmaceutical applications are determined. The attributes of the finished gadget or medication may be influenced by all of these aspects [11, 12].
- The main purposes of the characterization approach are to ascertain the molecular mass, molecular structure, morphology, and mechanical characteristics of a substance (Table 1.1) [11, 12].
Table 1.1 Polymer science progress.
Sr. no. Year Description 1. 1833 In reality, several altered natural polymers have been marketed. For instance, nitrated cellulose was labeled as celluloid and Guncotton [
7]. 2. 1839 Styrene polymerization was reported [
7]. 3. 1845 Guncotton was the first semi-artificial polymer ever created (cellulose nitrate). Due to this polymer's low solubility, processability, and explosivity, the production process has altered throughout time [
7]. 4. 1872 On the basis of phenol and formaldehyde, the synthetic polymer known as bakelite was created. In the car and electronics sectors, polycondensation-based polymeric goods, including Bakelite and those made of epoxy, phenoxy, ketones resins, and acrylic, were employed as in-expensive replacement for various parts [
7].
1.5 Applications of Polymers in Drug Delivery System
Numerous polymers may be created with desired features for particular applications, especially in the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries (Figure 1.2), thanks to the accessibility of polymeric materials as well as the capacity to modify their varied chemical, physical, or biological properties. This section will include a quick discussion of the most prevalent uses [2].
Figure 1.2 General application of polymer in pharmaceutical industry.
1.5.1 Tablets
The most popular dosage form for pharmacological products intended for oral administration is the tablet. The formulation's structure and ingredients can be changed to regulate the...
