Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production

Name: Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production | A Compendium of Operational and Engineering Aspects
Brand: Wiley
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A Compendium of Operational and Engineering Aspects

Bijan Kermani Don Harrop(Autor*in)

Wiley (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 1. März 2019

320 Seiten

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Beschreibung

Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production

This book captures the current understanding of corrosion processes in upstream operations and provides a brief overview of parameters and measures needed for optimum design of facilities. It focuses on internal corrosion occurring in hydrocarbon production environments and the key issues affecting its occurrence, including: the types and morphology of corrosion damage; principal metallic materials deployed; and mitigating measures to optimise its occurrence. The book also highlights important areas of progress and challenges, and looks toward the future of research and development to enable improved and economical design of facilities for oil and a gas production.

Written for both those familiar and unfamiliar with the subject--and by two authors with more than 60 years combined industry experience--this book covers everything from Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRAs) to internal metal loss corrosion threats, corrosion in injection systems to microbiologically influenced corrosion, corrosion risk analysis to corrosion and integrity management, and more, notably:

* Comprehensively covers the engineering aspects of corrosion and materials in hydrocarbon production

* Written by two, renowned experts in the field

* Offers practical guide to those unfamiliar with the subject whilst providing a focused roadmap to addressing the topics in a precise and methodical manner

* Covers all aspects of corrosion threat and remedial and mitigation measures in upstream hydrocarbon production applicable to sub-surface, surface, and transportation facilities

* Outlines technology challenges that need further research as a pre-cursor to moving the industry forward.

Operational and Engineering Aspects of Corrosion and Materials in Hydrocarbon Production is an excellent guide for both practicing materials and corrosion engineers working in hydrocarbons production as well as those entering the area who may not be fully familiar with the subject.

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Inhalt

Intro
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgement
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Scope and Objectives
1.1.1 Contents of the Book
1.2 The Impact of Corrosion
1.2.1 The Overall Financial Impact
1.3 Principal Types of Corrosion in Hydrocarbon Production
1.3.1 Corrosion Threats
1.4 The Way Ahead: Positive Corrosion
1.5 Summary
Note
References
Bibliography
Chapter 2 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (CLASs)
2.1 Steel Products
2.1.1 Structural Services
2.1.2 Pressure Containment
2.2 Development of Mechanical Properties
2.2.1 Heat Treatment
2.2.1.1 Normalising
2.2.1.2 Quenched and Tempering
2.2.1.3 Mechanical Working
2.2.2 Industrial Processes
2.3 Strengthening Mechanisms
2.3.1 Solid Solution Strengthening
2.3.2 Grain Refinement
2.3.3 Mechanical Working
2.3.4 Dispersion Strengthening
2.4 Hardenability
2.5 Weldability
2.6 Line Pipe Steels
2.7 Well Completion Downhole Tubulars
2.8 Internally Clad Materials
2.9 Summary
Notes
Reference
Bibliography
API/ISO Specifications
ASME Standard
Further Reading
Chapter 3 Corrosion-Resistant Alloys (CRAs)
3.1 Background
3.2 Alloying Elements, Microstructures, and their Significance for Corrosion Performance
3.2.1 Alloying Elements
3.2.2 Improving Corrosion Resistance
3.2.3 Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)
3.2.4 The Schaeffler Diagram and its Application
3.2.4.1 Nickel and Chromium Equivalents
3.3 Common Types/Grades of CRA Used in the Hydrocarbon Production Systems
3.3.1 Nominal Compositions
3.3.2 Mechanical Properties and Strengthening Methods
3.3.3 Yield Strength
3.4 Important Metallurgical Aspects of CRAs
3.4.1 Martensitic and Super Martensitic Stainless Steels (MSSs and SMSSs)
3.4.2 Duplex and Super Duplex Stainless Steels (DSSs and SDSSs)
3.4.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels (SSs)
3.4.4 Austenitic Fe- and Ni-Based Alloys
3.4.5 Titanium Alloys
3.5 Limits of Application
3.6 Selection Criteria
3.6.1 Selection Criteria Check List
3.6.2 Application of CRAs
3.6.3 Notable Points to Consider for Well Completion
3.7 Future Demands and Requirements
3.8 Summary
Note
References
Bibliography
Specifications
Further Reading
Chapter 4 Water Chemistry
4.1 Sources of Water
4.2 Water Chemistry
4.3 Other Impacts on Corrosivity
4.3.1 Mineral Scale
4.3.2 Bacterial Analyses
4.3.3 Iron Sulphide
4.3.4 Other Chemicals
4.4 Water Sampling Locations and Analysis Techniques
4.4.1 Sampling
4.4.2 Interpretation of Results
4.4.3 Monitoring Corrosion Management Strategies
4.5 Influential Parameters in System Corrosivity
4.6 Summary
Notes
References
Bibliography
Standards
Chapter 5 Internal Metal Loss Corrosion Threats
5.1 CO2 Metal Loss Corrosion
5.1.1 The Mechanism
5.1.2 Types of Damage
5.1.2.1 Pitting
5.1.2.2 Mesa-Type Attack
5.1.2.3 Flow-Induced Localised Corrosion
5.2 Key Influential Factors
5.2.1 Notable Parameters
5.2.1.1 The In-Situ pH
5.2.1.2 The Effect of Organic Acid
5.3 Metal Loss CO2 Corrosion Prediction
5.3.1 Industry Practice
5.4 Metal Loss Corrosion in Mixed H2S/CO2 Containing Streams
5.4.1 Assessment Methods
5.5 Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 6 Environmental Cracking (EC)
6.1 Environmental Cracking Threat in Steels
6.2 EC Associated with Hydrogen Sulphide
6.2.1 Corrosion Implications and Mechanism
6.2.2 Types of H2S Corrosion Threat
6.2.3 Categories, Types, Manifestation, and Mitigation Measures of H2S EC Threats
6.2.3.1 Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC)
6.2.3.2 Hydrogen Internal Pressure Effects
6.2.3.3 Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking (Cl-SCC)
6.2.3.4 Cracking in Related Environments
6.2.3.5 Operating Temperatures
6.3 Current Industry Practices
6.4 ISO 15156
6.4.1 Part 1
6.4.2 Part 2
6.4.2.1 Severity of Operating Conditions for CLASs
6.4.2.2 Key Governing Criteria
6.4.3 Part 3
6.5 Summary
Notes
Bibliography
Chapter 7 Corrosion in Injection Systems
7.1 The Intent
7.2 Injection Systems
7.2.1 Treated Water
7.3 Water Treatment Methods
7.3.1 Mechanical Treatment
7.3.2 Chemical Treatments
7.3.2.1 Oxygen Removal
7.3.2.2 Injectivity Problems and Drag Reduction
7.3.2.3 Coagulants and Filter Aids
7.3.2.4 Bacterial Growth and Proliferation
7.3.2.5 Antifoam
7.4 Water Corrosivity
7.4.1 Water Quality
7.5 Means of Corrosion Prediction
7.5.1 Oldfield and Todd
7.5.2 Berger and Hau
7.5.3 The Appropriate Model
7.6 Materials Options
7.6.1 Tubing
7.6.1.1 CLAS
7.6.1.2 Low Cr-Containing Steels
7.6.1.3 Plastic-Coated Tubulars
7.6.1.4 Glass Reinforced Epoxy-Lined CLAS Tubing
7.6.1.5 CRAs
7.6.2 Pipelines and Piping
7.6.2.1 Bare CLAS
7.6.2.2 Internally Lined CLAS
7.6.2.3 CRAs
7.7 Supplementary Notes
7.8 Hydrotesting
7.9 Summary
Note
References
Bibliography
Chapter 8 Corrosion Mitigation by the Use of Inhibitor Chemicals
8.1 Inhibitor Characteristics
8.1.1 Key Benefits
8.1.2 Inhibitor Formulation
8.1.3 Inhibitor Species and Functionality
8.1.3.1 Functionality
8.1.4 Inhibitor Performance
8.1.4.1 The Effect of Fluid Flow
8.1.5 Environmental Acceptance
8.2 Inhibitor Testing and Application
8.2.1 Operating Conditions
8.2.2 Inhibitor Testing/Selection
8.2.2.1 The Media
8.2.2.2 Appropriate Tests
8.3 Inhibitor Application/Deployment
8.3.1 Continuous Injection
8.3.1.1 Inhibitor Availability
8.3.2 Field Evaluation
8.3.3 Wet Gas Lines
8.3.4 Downhole Inhibition
8.3.4.1 Batch Treatment
8.4 Summary
Note
References
Chapter 9 Coating Systems
9.1 External Pipeline Coatings
9.1.1 Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE) Coating
9.1.2 Polyolefin Coatings
9.1.3 Field Joint Coatings
9.2 Internal Coating and Lining
9.2.1 Plastic-Coated Tubular (PCT)
9.2.2 Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) Lined CLAS Tubing
9.2.3 Internal Coating of Tanks and Vessels
9.3 External Painting of Structures
9.3.1 Offshore Structures
9.4 Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 10 Corrosion Trending
10.1 The Purpose of Corrosion Trending
10.2 Corrosion Monitoring
10.2.1 Corrosion Rate Monitoring
10.2.2 Weight Loss Coupons
10.2.3 Electrical Resistance (ER) Probes
10.2.4 Electrochemical Methods
10.2.5 Locating Internal Corrosion Monitoring Devices
10.2.6 Erosion Rate Monitoring
10.2.7 Access Fittings
10.2.8 Cost Considerations
10.2.9 Safety Considerations
10.3 Corrosion Barrier Monitoring
10.4 Collection and Analysis of Real-Time Monitoring Data
10.5 Downhole Corrosion Monitoring
10.6 Inspection Techniques
10.6.1 Equipment Portability
10.6.2 Visualising Inspection Data
10.7 Intelligent Pigging
10.8 Future Considerations
10.9 Summary
References
Bibliography
Specifications
Chapter 11 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
11.1 Main Features
11.2 The Primary Causes
11.2.1 Summary of Key Parameters
11.3 The Motive for Promotion of Corrosion by Micro-organisms
11.3.1 The Corrosion Process
11.3.2 Microbial Activity Inside the Biofilms
11.3.3 Bridging Surface to Biofilm
11.3.4 Summary Mechanism
11.4 Most Susceptible Locations and Conditions
11.4.1 Most MIC-Prone Environments and Facilities
11.4.2 Least MIC-Prone Environments and Facilities
11.4.3 Uncertain Limits and Conditions of Occurrence
11.4.4 Brief Overview
11.4.5 The Anticipated Damage Rate
11.5 Potential Prevention Measures
11.5.1 Biocide Treatments
11.5.2 Periodic Pigging
11.5.3 Inhibitor Treatments
11.5.4 Cleanliness
11.5.5 Cathodic Protection and Coatings
11.6 Means of Monitoring
11.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 12 Dense Phase CO2 Corrosion
12.1 Background
12.2 CO2 Stream Composition
12.3 Corrosion in the Presence of Aqueous Phases
12.3.1 Pure CO2 and Water
12.3.2 Impurities and Formation of Corrosive Phases
12.4 Means of Corrosion Prediction
12.5 Method of Corrosion Mitigation
12.5.1 Normal Operation
12.5.2 Transport of Wet CO2
12.5.3 Accidental Ingress of Water
12.5.4 Depressurisation
12.5.5 Downhole Corrosion
12.6 Summary
References
Chapter 13 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
13.1 Historical Context
13.1.1 Key Features
13.2 Key Parameters Affecting CUI
13.2.1 Water
13.2.2 Contaminants
13.2.3 Primary CUI Temperature Ranges
13.2.4 The Effect of Temperature on CUI
13.2.5 The Effect of Humidity and the Dew Point: Sweating Corrosion
13.2.6 The Effect of Insulation Type on CUI
13.2.7 The Insulation System
13.3 CUI Prevention Methods
13.3.1 Protective Coatings
13.3.2 Organic Coatings for Carbon Steel Components
13.3.3 Thermally Spray Aluminium (TSA)
13.4 CUI Mitigation Strategy
13.4.1 Stainless Steel for Small Diameter Piping
13.4.2 Aluminium Foil Wrapping
13.4.3 Remove Unnecessary Insulation: Personnel Protection Cages
13.5 CUI Inspection
13.6 NDE/NDT Techniques to Detect CUI
13.7 Summary
References
Chapter 14 Metallic Materials Optimisation Routes
14.1 Background
14.2 Production Facilities
14.2.1 Drilling Components
14.2.2 Wells/Subsurface Components
14.2.3 Manifolds
14.2.4 Flowlines and Unprocessed Fluids Pipelines
14.2.5 Flexible Pipes
14.2.6 Process/Surface Facilities
14.2.7 Gas Treating Plants
14.2.8 Export Pipelines and Trunklines
14.2.9 Seals and Elastomers
14.3 The Operating Regimes
14.3.1 Production
14.3.2 Injection
14.4 System Corrosivity
14.4.1 CO2 Corrosion
14.4.2 H2S Corrosion
14.5 Oxygen Corrosion
14.6 Metallic Materials Optimisation Methodology
14.7 Materials Options
14.7.1 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels (CLASs)
14.7.2 Low Cr Containing Steels
14.7.3 Families of 13%Cr Steels
14.7.4 Other CRAs
14.8 Internal Corrosion Mitigation Methods
14.8.1 Corrosion Inhibition (CI)
14.8.2 Corrosion Allowance (CA)
14.8.3 pH Stabilisation
14.8.4 Internal Coatings and Linings
14.9 Whole Life Cost (WLC) Analysis
14.10 Materials Optimisation Strategy
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 15 Non-metallic Materials: Elastomer Seals and Non-metallic Liners
15.1 Elastomer Seals
15.1.1 Commonly Used Elastomer Materials for Upstream Hydrocarbon Service
15.1.1.1 Nitrile Rubber (NBR)
15.1.1.2 Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubber (HNBR)
15.1.1.3 Fluorocarbon Rubber (FKM)
15.1.1.4 Tetrafluoroethylene-Propylene Rubber (TFEP)
15.1.1.5 Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM)
15.1.2 Key Potential Failure Modes
15.1.3 Seal and Materials Selection
15.1.3.1 Degradation Due to Temperature and Chemical Environment
15.1.3.2 Extrusion
15.1.3.3 Decompression Damage
15.1.4 Project-Specific Elastomer Seal Selection Guidelines
15.2 Non-metallic Liner Options for Corrosion Control
15.2.1 Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP)
15.2.1.1 RTP Structure
15.2.1.2 RTP Qualification
15.2.1.3 RTP Installation
15.2.2 Thermoplastic Liners
15.2.2.1 Plastic Liner Installation
15.2.3 Plastic Liner Materials
15.2.3.1 Plastic Liner Qualification
15.2.4 Summary of Technology Capabilities
15.2.5 Other Technologies
15.2.5.1 'Hybrid' Solutions
15.2.5.2 Composite-Lined Downhole Tubing
15.3 Flexible Pipes
15.3.1 The Carcass
15.3.2 Polymer Pressure Barrier/Sheath
15.3.3 Reinforcement Wires
15.3.4 External Plastic Sheath
15.4 Summary
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chapter 16 Cathodic Protection (CP)
16.1 Key Points of Effectiveness
16.2 Cathodic Protection in Environmental Waters
16.2.1 Design
16.2.1.1 Typical Design Considerations
16.2.2 Sacrificial Anode Materials
16.2.3 Impressed Current CP in Environmental Waters
16.2.3.1 General Considerations
16.2.3.2 Impressed Current Anode Materials
16.3 Cathodic Protection and Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HAC)
16.3.1 Monitoring and Inspection
16.4 Cathodic Protection of Structures in Contact with the Ground
16.4.1 Cathodic Protection Criteria
16.4.2 Cathodic Protection Design
16.4.2.1 Groundbed
16.5 Cathodic Protection of Well Casings
16.6 Cathodic Protection and AC Interference
16.7 Inspection and Testing
16.8 Internal Cathodic Protection Systems
16.9 Summary
16.10 Terminologies
16.10.1 Polarisation
16.10.2 Calcareous Deposit
16.10.3 Open Circuit Potential
16.10.4 IR Free Potential
Notes
References
Bibliography
Chapter 17 Corrosion Risk Analysis
17.1 Risk
17.2 The Bow Tie Concept
17.3 Risk Matrix
17.4 Corrosion RBA Process
17.5 Corrosion RBA: Input
17.6 Corrosion RBA: Analysis
17.6.1 An Example: Flowline Corrosion
17.6.2 An Example: Sulphide Stress Cracking
17.6.3 Localised Attack
17.7 Corrosion RBA: Output
17.8 Corrosion RBA: Overall Process
17.8.1 Ensuring Continual Fitness for Service
17.9 Risky Business
17.10 Behaviours
17.11 Bayes' Theorem
17.12 Moving Forward
17.13 Summary
Note
References
Chapter 18 Corrosion and Integrity Management
18.1 Integrity Management (IM)
18.1.1 Overview of IM Elements and Practice
18.1.2 Risk and Hazard Evaluation
18.1.3 Implementation
18.2 Corrosion Management (CM)
18.2.1 Performance Management
18.2.2 Performance Indicators (PIs)
18.2.3 Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
18.2.4 Performance Reviews
18.3 Data Management
18.3.1 Outdoor Facilities
18.3.2 Indoor/Enclosed Facilities
18.3.3 Data Collation and Representation
18.4 The Future
18.5 Summary
References
Bibliography
Chapter 19 Corrosion and Materials Challenges in Hydrocarbon Production
19.1 Energy Viewpoint and the Role of Technology
19.2 Future Focus Areas and Horizon
19.3 Challenges in Materials and Corrosion Technology
19.3.1 HPHT Reservoir Trends
19.4 Shortfalls in Technology Implementation and Knowledge Partnership
19.4.1 25%Cr Super Duplex Stainless Steels
19.4.2 22%Cr Duplex Stainless Steel
19.4.3 Alloy 718 and 725
19.4.4 Alloy 17-4PH
19.4.5 Super-Martensitic 13%Cr Line Pipe Steels
19.4.6 Riser Systems
19.5 Summary
References
Bibliography
Abbreviations
Index
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