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Dr Douglas L. Karlen, USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment Dr Karlen is an experienced research scientist in the Soil, Water, and Air Resources Research Unit at the USDA, Agricultural Research Service. His soil and crop management research program uses a systems approach involving research scientists and engineers, producers, action agencies, non-government organizations, agribusiness, and other state and federal partners to quantify physical, chemical, and biological effects of conventional and organic farming practices. His current focus is on sustaining or improving soil quality while striving to produce sustainable feedstock supplies for lignocellulosic biofuel production.
Foreword xvii
Series Preface xix
Preface xxi
List of Contributors xxiii
1 Introduction to Cellulosic Energy Crops 1Mark Laser and Lee Lynd
1.1 Cellulosic Biomass: Definition, Photosynthesis, and Composition 1
1.2 Cellulosic Biomass Properties and Their Relevance to Downstream Processing 4
1.3 Desirable Traits and Potential Supply of Cellulosic Energy Crops 7
1.4 The Case for Cellulosic Energy Crops 8
2 Conversion Technologies for the Production of Liquid Fuels and Biochemicals 15Sofie Dobbelaere, Tom Anthonis, and Wim Soetaert
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Biomass Conversion Technologies 16
2.3 (Bio)Chemical Conversion Route 17
2.4 Thermochemical Conversion Route 23
2.5 Summary and Conclusions 27
3 Technologies for Production of Heat and Electricity 31Jacob J. Jacobson and Kara G. Cafferty
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Combustion 33
3.3 Repowering 35
3.4 Gasification 35
3.5 Pyrolysis 35
3.6 Direct Hydrothermal Liquefaction 37
3.7 Anaerobic Digestion 37
3.8 Integrated Biorefineries 38
3.9 Summary 39
4 Miscanthus Genetics and Agronomy for Bioenergy Feedstock 43Maryse Brancourt-Hulmel, Charlotte Demay, Emeline Rosiau, Fabien Ferchaud, Linda Bethencourt, Stephanie Arnoult, Camille Dauchy, Nicolas Beaudoin, and Hubert Boizard
4.1 Introduction 43
4.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 44
4.3 Cultural Practices 50
4.4 Genetic Improvement 57
4.5 Conclusion 65
5 Switchgrass 75Rob Mitchell, D.K. Lee, and Michael Casler
5.1 Overview 75
5.2 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 75
5.3 Cultural Practices 78
5.4 Genetic Improvement 82
5.5 Summary 85
6 Sugarcane, Energy Cane and Napier Grass 91Edward P. Richard, Jr. and William F. Anderson
6.1 Sugar and Energy Cane 91
6.2 Napier grass 99
7 Sorghum 109William L. Rooney
7.1 Introduction 109
7.2 Sorghum Phenology, Genetic Structure and Types 110
7.3 Cultural Practices 114
7.4 Genetic Improvement 118
7.5 Summary and Conclusions 123
8 Crop Residues 131Douglas L. Karlen and David R. Huggins
8.1 Overview 131
8.2 Corn Stover 133
8.3 Wheat Straw 139
8.4 Future Opportunities 143
9 Eucalyptus 149Michael W. Cunningham and Bijay Tamang
9.1 Phylogeny, Growth, Yield and Chemical Composition 149
9.2 Cultural Practices 153
9.3 Genetic Improvement 155
10 Pine 161David B. South and Mathew Smidt
10.1 Introduction 161
10.2 Cultural Practices 165
10.3 Harvesting 173
10.4 Genetic Improvement 176
10.5 Economics 177
10.6 Government Regulations 179
10.7 Final Comments 180
11 Poplar 183Andrzej Klasa and Doug Karlen
11.1 Introduction 183
11.2 Cultural Practices 184
11.3 Genetic Improvement 193
11.4 Utilization 193
11.5 Carbon Sequestration and Soil Response 194
12 Development and Deployment of Willow Biomass Crops 201Timothy A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson, T. Buchholz, J. Caputo, and M. Eisenbies
12.1 Introduction 201
12.2 Shrub Willow Characteristics 202
12.3 Production Systems for Willow Biomass Crops 204
12.4 Willow Biomass Crop Economics 208
12.5 Environmental and Rural Development Benefits 211
12.6 Commercial Development 212
12.7 Conclusions 214
13 Herbaceous Biomass Logistics 219John S. Cundiff
13.1 Introduction 219
13.2 Typical Biomass Logistics Constraints 220
13.3 Linkage in Logistics Chain 221
13.4 Plant Size 225
13.5 Harvesting 226
13.6 Highway Hauling 229
13.7 Development of Concept for Multibale Handling Unit 232
13.8 Functionality Analysis for Rack System Concept 236
13.9 Cost Analysis for 24-h Hauling Using Rack System Concept 240
13.10 Summary 242
Appendix 13.A Cost to Operate Workhorse Forklift (Example for Equipment Cost Calculations) 244
Appendix 13.B Operational Plan for "Rack System" Example 245
B.1 Operation Plan for SSL Loading 245
B.2 Influence of SSL Size on Rack Loading Operations 246
B.3 Total Trucks Required - 24-h Hauling 247
B.4 Total Racks Required - 24-h Hauling 248
14 Woody Biomass Logistics 251Robert Keefe, Nathaniel Anderson, John Hogland, and Ken Muhlenfeld
14.1 Introduction 251
14.2 Overview of the Woody Biomass Supply Chain 252
14.3 Woody Biomass from Dedicated Energy Crops 254
14.4 Woody Biomass from Stand Thinning 255
14.5 Logging Residues 256
14.6 Harvesting and Processing Systems and Equipment 260
14.7 Woody Biomass Transportation 266
14.8 Pretreatment 269
14.9 Handling and Storage 271
14.10 Logistics Management 273
15 Economic Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 281Kelly D. Zering
15.1 Introduction 281
15.2 Economics of Crop Production 282
15.3 Risk and Uncertainty 287
15.4 Risk Mitigation and Management 291
15.5 Supply, Demand and Prices 293
15.6 The Start-Up Barrier 295
15.7 Elements of Sustainability 296
15.8 Policy 296
15.9 Summary 297
16 Environmental Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 299Richard Lowrance and Adam Davis
16.1 Introduction 299
16.2 Greenhouse Gas Effects 301
16.3 Soil Properties 302
16.4 Water Quantity and Quality 303
16.5 Invasive Species Effects/Mitigation/Enhancement 305
16.6 Wildlife and Biodiversity 307
16.7 Conclusions 308
17 Social Sustainability of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 315Cornelia Butler Flora and Charles F. Curtiss
17.1 Introduction 315
17.2 Standards for Social Sustainability 316
17.3 Forest-Based Biofuels 317
17.4 Biofuel Social Sustainability Standards 318
17.5 Summary and Conclusions 331
18 Commercialization of Cellulosic Energy Cropping Systems 335Sam W. Jackson
18.1 Overview 335
18.2 Introduction 335
18.3 Land Availability 336
18.4 Crop Selection and Contracting 337
18.5 Financing Establishment 339
18.6 Agronomic Efficiencies and Management 339
18.7 Identifying and Addressing Risks 341
18.8 Conclusion 343
19 Selected Global Examples of Cellulosic Cropping System Trends 345Douglas L. Karlen, Marcelo Valadares Galdos, Sarita Candida Rabelo, Henrique Continho Junqueira Franco, Antonio Bonomi, Jihong Li, Shi-Zhong Li, Jaya Shankar Tumuluru, and Leslie Ovard
19.1 Overview 345
19.2 Cellulosic Ethanol in Brazil 346
19.3 Cellulosic Bioenergy in China 350
19.4 Bioenergy in India 355
19.5 Summary 360
Acknowledgements 360
References 361
Index 365
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