Brief overview of the history of publishing

Abstract:

The chapter gives an overview of the historical evolution of publishing media in chronological sequence. Significant geographical locations and historical individuals are mentioned. An overview of interaction between the technological development of the carrier of information and content presentation is given, from clay tablets and scrolls to the formats used in print and electronic technology. The role of libraries and librarians in relation to publishers and publishing is discussed in respect to the major media forms.

Key words

publishing history

clay tablets

scrolls

codices

printed books

Clay tablets

We are all familiar with the following crucial moments in human history: the clay tablets, the parchment writings, the manuscripts, the progress from the scroll to the codex and what it meant for the readers and for the development of the human mind. We want to draw attention to their development, in which librarians and scribes played a very important role. Today we must be aware of these turning points in history and the complexity of relations between print, publishing and librarianship with their discoveries and inventions. Throughout the history of development of Western culture and science, the accumulation of knowledge has always been essential.

The Sumerian clay tablet - with pictorial writing from the end of the fourth century BC - is the oldest scripture discovered to this day and the city of Nippur, where it was discovered, had a district with scriptoriums (Kramer, 1981). After the Sumerians, the Babylonians continued to write on clay tablets and to store them in libraries in Mesopotamia. However, the most significant clay tablet library was that of the Assyrian king Asurbanipal (seventh century BC). In his library an army of scribes copied each text, sometimes several times over.

Scrolls and codices

The most common writing material in Egypt was papyrus, a material already in use at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Papyrus was exported from Egypt to other parts of the world, from the eleventh century, to Phoenicians and Syrians, and later to Greeks and Romans. It was the most common writing material until parchment and paper replaced it. Egyptian books had a scroll shape, a form that continued to later times, especially in Greece and Rome (Cerny, 1952). Before the invention of paper in China, strips of bamboo, bones, wooden tablets, stone and later silk were used as writing material. These surfaces were unsuitable and difficult to handle so there were many reasons to invent a better material for writing. Historians believe that paper was invented in China in the first century BC (Blum, 1934).

In Greece, especially during the fourth century BC, the scroll book became the primary mode of communication, and this marked the definitive shift from oral to written culture. The first professional scribes and bookstores in Athens appeared as early as the fifth century BC but the distribution of these books was modest and difficult (Kenyon, 1951). Before the golden age of the Alexandria library in the third century BC, Rhodes, Antioch, Pergamum and especially Alexandria become important centres of book production and trade. Aside from the affluent individuals, the biggest book buyers were libraries. Decentralisation of the Hellenistic world and its culture contributed to the final affirmation of the written word.

When we are talking about this time period, the Etruscan civilisation must not go unmentioned. The so-called Zagreb mummy was wrapped in a sort of a codex, which is the only known cloth 'book' preserved from this period. This 13.5-meter-long codex is the longest Etruscan text known to this day (Dumezil, 1977).

Ancient Rome continued the well-established Greek tradition of book production in the form of the scroll up to the second century AD. A very important change in book form occurs in the period from the second to the fourth century AD. Parchment is increasingly taking the place of papyrus, and instead of a scroll, books are more often taking the shape of a codex. This shift outlived the ancient world and dominated book production until Gutenberg invented the printing press. The domination of parchment over papyrus also had a deeper social meaning. It coincides with the domination of Christianity over pagan beliefs. Christians and Jews regarded a sacred text as an object that had to be preserved and therefore to be written on a surface that was more durable than papyrus. Also, papyrus was not as suited for illustrations as was parchment. This is a very important moment in the history of the book. Papyrus supported only water colours, which would crack and fall off while bending the scroll. Illustrations on parchment, on the other hand, were durable. Besides fixed colours, the codex had the advantage of the rectangular shape of pages, which allowed the illustrator to design a better layout of the text and illustrations. In spite of all of these advantages, the scroll remained and was treasured until the sixth century AD. With regard to access to and quality of information, the time period we are describing here played an important role in the transmitting of information, as the contents from the scrolls were massively copied to the codex format. This was of tremendous importance for the preservation of old texts that would otherwise disappear. Books made at the end of the ancient era were often illustrated and bound. With the conquest of Christianity over paganism, parchment won out over papyrus.

Highlights from the history of publishing - from papyrus to Gutenberg

Eleventh century BC - the age of papyrus

The most common writing material in Egypt was the papyrus, a material already in use at the beginning of the third millennium BC. Papyrus was exported from Egypt to other parts of the world, from the eleventh century to the Phoenicians and Syrians, and later to the Greeks and Romans. It was the most common writing material until parchment and paper replaced it. The Egyptian book always had a scroll shape.

Seventh century BC - the age of clay tablets

The most significant clay tablet library was that of the Assyrian king Asurbanipal. An army of scribes copied each text sometimes several times over.

Fifth century BC - the age of Greek bookstores

The first professional scribes and bookstores in Athens appeared as early as the fifth century BC, but the distribution of these books was modest and difficult.

Fourth century BC - the age of pictorial writing

The Sumerian clay tablet with pictorial writing from the end of the fourth century BC is the oldest scripture discovered to this day. The city of Nippur had a district of scriptoriums. After the Sumerians, the Babylonians continued to write on clay tablets and to store them in libraries in Mesopotamia.

Third century BC - the age of Alexandria

The golden age of the Alexandrian library, the biggest and richest library of the ancient world, was also the important centre of book production and trade. Apart from rich individuals, the biggest book buyers were libraries. The decentralisation of the Hellenistic world and its culture brought about the affirmation of the written word.

First century BC - the invention of paper in China

Historians think that paper was invented in China in the first century BC. Before the invention of paper, strips of bamboo, bones, wooden tablets, stone and later silk were used as writing material. These surfaces were unsuitable and difficult to handle so there were many reasons to invent a better material for writing.

Second to fourth century - the age of the scroll

Ancient Rome continued the well-established Greek tradition of book production in the form of the scroll up to the second century. A very important transformation for books occured from the second to the fourth century. Parchment increasingly took the place of papyrus, and instead of a scroll, books were more often taking the shape of a codex. This shift outlived the ancient world and dominated book production until Gutenberg's time.

Sixth to fifteenth century - the age of codex

The contents from the scrolls were massively copied to the codex format. The skills to illustrate and bind were abundantly used at the end of ancient times. With the conquest of Christianity over paganism, parchment won out over papyrus.

Fifteenth century - the invention of print with movable type

Johann Gutenberg invented the print with movable type. Gutenberg's invention enabled printers to use movable type instead of a plate, which could be used for one book only, while movable type could be used to print many books.

Print

The importance of print is evident to all librarians. The study of the history of print is a part of librarians' education, and research on books is conducted in many countries. Such studies include the history of print and printers and it seems that this research area is limitless. A number of times in recent book history, the end...