Chapter 1

Introduction

Abstracts

To protect public health and ensure a well-functioning society, potable water systems must be protected from intentional damage and attack, but it is also important that thorough planning is conducted to prepare for intentional or accidental contamination. Water security is an extensive issue, requiring a systematic approach for planning, implementing improvements, and measuring success. To enhance water security, the U.S. EPA has adopted a “layered defense” or defense-in-depth approach, which is intended to mitigate risk by employing a protective, best-available management strategy with a multitude of devices to prevent attacks, including contaminant warning systems to become informed once an attack has occurred and deployment responses once an attack has been confirmed. The purpose of this book is to review the issues surrounding water security and provide information useful to engineers, planners, and managers to address and manage these challenges and so enhance water security.

Keywords

water securitynatural disastersdefense-in-depthdual-use benefitssecurity barrierscontaminant warning equipment

Chapter Outline

1. Water System Security Overview

2. Historical Perspective

3. Defense-in-Depth Approach

4. Dual-Use Benefits

5. Technology Solutions

Conclusions

References

Water System Security Overview

Protection of potable water systems is vital for protecting public health and ensuring a well-functioning society. It is important that water systems, a critical part of infrastructure, be protected from intentional damage and attack, but it is also important that thorough planning is conducted to prepare for intentional or accidental contamination. Although a large-scale attack on a water system has not occurred, concern over the safety of water systems has intensified since the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. An attack on a water system could result in extensive effects, including illness, loss of life, societal disruption, and economic repercussions; loss of public confidence, fear, and panic could lead to civil unrest. Similar effects can result following an accident or natural disaster. Physical attacks on water systems can occur as the result of civil disturbances, fires, vandalism, cyber attacks, breaks in main pipelines, the use of weapons of mass destruction, bomb threats, or hazardous material spills (U.S. EPA, 2008). Hazards to infrastructure, including water systems, consist of terrorist attacks, natural and human-made disasters, accidental disruptions, and emergencies (AWWA, 2009; U.S. Army CHPPM, 2005). Natural disasters can include hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes, thunderstorms, winter weather, and flu pandemics (U.S. EPA, 2008). The potential economic fallout from accidental or deliberate contamination in a water system is significant. Porco (2010) estimates that the cost for radiological contamination in a water system serving a population of 10,000 could be as high as $26 billion; for a population of 100,000, the estimated economic impact could be $100 billion. These cost estimates took into account immediate effects, such as loss of life, cessation of industrial activities, emergency medical care, rapid response and security personnel, and remediation, as well as secondary effects, including effects to sanitation systems, disruption of firefighting capabilities, long-term economic disruption, long-term medical care, decreases in property values, and public fear and distrust. In the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP), four types of consequences are defined: public health and safety, economic, psychological, and governance effects (AWWA, 2009). The security of a water system can be compromised in a variety of ways (DeNileon, 2001). The physical components of the water system can be directly attacked, such that water system components cease to function or function incorrectly. A cyber attack would target the computer systems used to operate the water infrastructure, causing similar malfunctions. A third type of attack could come in the form of deliberate contamination. Potential repercussions of intentional contamination are similar to potential repercussions from accidental contamination. Contamination arising from accidents could be the result of a natural disaster, accidental mistakes in operating the water system, or an accident such as a train derailment (e.g., chemicals from a derailed train are discharged into a water body that serves as a drinking water source). Preparing for and detecting accidental and deliberate contamination are similar and parallel activities. It is important that water utilities adopt an “all hazards” approach to emergency planning, so that they prepare for all types of adverse situations. Understanding the potential contaminants is critical in preparing for water system failures and attacks. Many biological, chemical, or radiological agents are available and could be used to harm or frighten a significant population via the water system. Many contamination agents can be acquired in sufficient quantities to cause casualties to a large population. To some extent, drinking water systems are protected against biological contaminants as a result of maintained concentrations of disinfectant residual within the distribution system. Biological attacks are believed to be most dangerous in the aerosol form, and most research has focused on the possibility of an airborne attack or event. However, biological contaminants can be dispersed in drinking water systems, and many potential biological agents are immune to disinfection with chlorine. One difficulty in protecting potable water supplies is that many potential chemical contaminants are not removed in conventional treatment systems. In addition, deliberate contamination could occur in the distribution system downstream of treatment facilities. Understanding the nature of potential contaminants is crucial for determining how best to detect the contaminants, respond to an attack, and rehabilitate the portions of impaired water systems exposed to contaminants. Water utilities can take many steps to ensure water security. Linville and Thompson (2006) describe the following as features of an effective water security program: • Management must be committed to security. • Vulnerabilities must be assessed and monitored. • Investments to improve security should be given priority. • Access to facilities should be controlled. • Access to security-sensitive information should be controlled. • Security considerations should be incorporated into emergency response planning. • Communication strategies should be implemented. • Security status should be maintained. AWWA (2009) states that there should be a security culture throughout water utility organizations, where employees have defined roles and expectations. Documents should be kept current and continuously revised with resources dedicated to security activities and improvements. A lot of effort has been dedicated in the last ten years toward development and testing of contaminant warning systems; these systems are very useful in making water system more secure (U.S. EPA, 2010). Additional steps that water utilities can take include the incorporation of security features into the design and construction of new facilities, development of protocols for responding to threats, and formation of partnerships with other agencies, public health officials, and law enforcement. Preparing for accidental and deliberate contamination requires knowledge in several areas. First, potential threats must be identified. Also, possible prevention measures must be determined and implemented. Detection technologies and strategies for identifying contamination are useful tools for reducing the impact of contamination. Finally, information regarding potential responses to contamination and rehabilitation methods for affected systems must be collected to be adequately prepared. Water providers must determine their system vulnerabilities and plan for emergency situations. The purpose of this book is to review the issues surrounding water security and provide information useful to engineers, planners, and managers to address and manage these challenges in order to enhance water security.

Historical Perspective

The possibility of a terrorist attack on U.S. water systems is well established (NRC, 2002). Throughout the world and throughout history, attacks on drinking water have been carried out as a military and terrorist tactic (Beering, 2002; Christopher et al., 1997; Gleick, 2006). In particular, the use of pathogenic microorganisms and biotoxins as weapons has a long history throughout the world and is a real modern threat. Throughout history intentional attacks have been made on water supplies, resulting in casualties and damage to water systems and, more...