Bridging Inferences

1 - Preface [Seite 6]
2 - Acknowledgements [Seite 8]
3 - Contents [Seite 10]
4 - Introduction [Seite 18]
5 - 1 Pragmatic Inferences [Seite 24]
5.1 - 1.1 Semantic Underspecification and Pragmatic Enrichment [Seite 24]
5.1.1 - 1.1.1 Underspecified Semantics [Seite 25]
5.1.2 - 1.1.2 Accounts of Pragmatic Inference [Seite 29]
5.1.2.1 - 1.1.2.1 Conversational Implicatures [Seite 30]
5.1.2.2 - 1.1.2.2 Generalized Conversational Implicatures [Seite 33]
5.1.2.3 - 1.1.2.3 Explicatures [Seite 35]
5.1.2.4 - 1.1.2.4 Primary and Secondary Pragmatic Processes [Seite 36]
5.1.2.5 - 1.1.2.5 Abductive Inferences [Seite 37]
5.1.2.6 - 1.1.2.6 Conclusion [Seite 38]
5.1.3 - 1.1.3 Properties of Pragmatic Inferences [Seite 39]
5.2 - 1.2 Formal Approaches to Defeasible Reasoning [Seite 42]
5.2.1 - 1.2.1 Default Logic [Seite 44]
5.2.2 - 1.2.2 Circumscription [Seite 49]
5.2.3 - 1.2.3 Commonsense Entailment [Seite 52]
5.2.4 - 1.2.4 Abductive Reasoning [Seite 54]
5.2.5 - 1.2.5 Conclusion [Seite 58]
5.3 - 1.3 Pragmatic Inferences Beyond the Sentence Level [Seite 60]
5.3.1 - 1.3.1 Text and Discourse [Seite 60]
5.3.2 - 1.3.2 Cohesion [Seite 62]
5.3.3 - 1.3.3 Coherence [Seite 65]
5.3.3.1 - 1.3.3.1 An Intentional View on Discourse Coherence [Seite 67]
5.3.3.2 - 1.3.3.2 An Informational View on Discourse Coherence [Seite 68]
5.3.4 - 1.3.4 Looking Ahead [Seite 69]
6 - 2 The Common Ground and Intentions in Conversations [Seite 74]
6.1 - 2.1 The Common Ground [Seite 74]
6.1.1 - 2.1.1 Definitions of Shared Knowledge [Seite 74]
6.1.2 - 2.1.2 The Use of the Common Ground in Conversation [Seite 79]
6.1.2.1 - 2.1.2.1 Evidence from Language Production [Seite 79]
6.1.2.2 - 2.1.2.2 Evidence from Language Comprehension [Seite 80]
6.1.2.3 - 2.1.2.3 Discussion and Conclusion [Seite 81]
6.1.3 - 2.1.3 Establishing the Common Ground [Seite 82]
6.1.3.1 - 2.1.3.1 Accumulation [Seite 83]
6.1.3.2 - 2.1.3.2 Grounding [Seite 83]
6.1.3.3 - 2.1.3.3 Structuring the Common Ground [Seite 86]
6.1.4 - 2.1.4 Conclusion [Seite 87]
6.2 - 2.2 Modelling Intentions in Discourses [Seite 89]
6.2.1 - 2.2.1 Optimality Theory for Discourse Pragmatics [Seite 90]
6.2.2 - 2.2.2 Linguistic Communication as a Game [Seite 93]
6.2.3 - 2.2.3 Conclusion [Seite 95]
7 - 3 The Discourse Model and Discourse Anaphora [Seite 96]
7.1 - 3.1 Discourse Anaphora [Seite 97]
7.1.1 - 3.1.1 Types and Distribution of Anaphoric Expressions [Seite 97]
7.1.2 - 3.1.2 Syntactic and Semantic Notions of Anaphora [Seite 101]
7.2 - 3.2 The Discourse Model [Seite 105]
7.2.1 - 3.2.1 Conceptions of Discourse Models [Seite 105]
7.2.2 - 3.2.2 Requirements on Discourse Models [Seite 109]
7.3 - 3.3 Discourse Referents [Seite 111]
7.3.1 - 3.3.1 Introducing Discourse Referents in the Discourse Model [Seite 111]
7.3.2 - 3.3.2 Accessing Discourse Referents as Antecedents for Anaphora [Seite 113]
7.3.2.1 - 3.3.2.1 Familiarity [Seite 113]
7.3.2.2 - 3.3.2.2 Givenness [Seite 114]
7.3.2.3 - 3.3.2.3 Accessibility [Seite 115]
7.3.2.4 - 3.3.2.4 Salience [Seite 117]
7.3.2.5 - 3.3.2.5 Activation [Seite 118]
7.3.3 - 3.3.3 Conclusion [Seite 120]
7.4 - 3.4 Theories of Anaphora Resolution [Seite 120]
7.4.1 - 3.4.1 A Pragmatic Account [Seite 121]
7.4.2 - 3.4.2 Computational Accounts [Seite 125]
7.4.2.1 - 3.4.2.1 Focus Theory [Seite 125]
7.4.2.2 - 3.4.2.2 Centering Theory [Seite 126]
7.4.3 - 3.4.3 Dynamic Semantics and Discourse Representation Theory [Seite 131]
7.4.3.1 - 3.4.3.1 Context as Index [Seite 132]
7.4.3.2 - 3.4.3.2 Dynamic Semantics [Seite 133]
7.4.3.3 - 3.4.3.3 Discourse Representation Theory [Seite 134]
7.4.3.4 - 3.4.3.4 Anaphora in DRT [Seite 139]
7.4.3.5 - 3.4.3.5 Discussion [Seite 141]
7.4.4 - 3.4.4 Conclusion [Seite 142]
8 - 4 Discourse Structure [Seite 144]
8.1 - 4.1 Characteristics of Discourse Structure [Seite 145]
8.1.1 - 4.1.1 Discourse Segments: Basic Structural Units [Seite 145]
8.1.2 - 4.1.2 Connecting Discourse Segments [Seite 146]
8.1.2.1 - 4.1.2.1 Discourse Markers [Seite 146]
8.1.2.2 - 4.1.2.2 Discourse Relations [Seite 147]
8.1.3 - 4.1.3 The Form of Discourse Structure [Seite 148]
8.1.3.1 - 4.1.3.1 Sequences [Seite 148]
8.1.3.2 - 4.1.3.2 Stacks [Seite 149]
8.1.3.3 - 4.1.3.3 Trees [Seite 150]
8.1.3.4 - 4.1.3.4 Graphs [Seite 154]
8.1.3.5 - 4.1.4 Conclusion [Seite 157]
8.2 - 4.2 Discourse Relations [Seite 158]
8.2.1 - 4.2.1 Hobbs' Coherence Relations [Seite 159]
8.2.2 - 4.2.2 Kehler's Three Types of Coherence [Seite 160]
8.2.2.1 - 4.2.2.1 Coherence Relations: Cause-Effect [Seite 160]
8.2.2.2 - 4.2.2.2 Coherence Relations: Resemblance [Seite 161]
8.2.2.3 - 4.2.2.3 Coherence Relations: Contiguity [Seite 163]
8.2.2.4 - 4.2.2.4 Linguistic Phenomena Explained by Kehler's Taxonomy [Seite 164]
8.2.2.5 - 4.2.2.5 Problems with Kehler's Theory [Seite 168]
8.2.3 - 4.2.3 Rhetorical Structure Theory [Seite 170]
8.2.4 - 4.2.4 Rhetorical Relations in SDRT [Seite 176]
8.2.5 - 4.2.5 Conclusion [Seite 182]
8.3 - 4.3 Discourse Topic [Seite 182]
8.3.1 - 4.3.1 Discourse Topic as Entity [Seite 184]
8.3.2 - 4.3.2 Discourse Topic as Proposition [Seite 184]
8.3.3 - 4.3.3 Discourse Topic as Question [Seite 188]
8.3.3.1 - 4.3.3.1 Contrastive Sentence Topics [Seite 188]
8.3.3.2 - 4.3.3.2 Topic-Comment Structures for Discourses [Seite 190]
8.3.3.3 - 4.3.3.3 Quaestio Theory [Seite 192]
8.3.3.4 - 4.3.3.4 Questions Under Discussion [Seite 194]
8.3.4 - 4.3.4 Conclusion [Seite 195]
9 - 5 Discourse Interpretation [Seite 198]
9.1 - 5.1 Discourse Interpretation as Abduction [Seite 198]
9.1.1 - 5.1.1 Flat Logical Forms [Seite 199]
9.1.2 - 5.1.2 Weighted Abduction [Seite 200]
9.1.3 - 5.1.3 Local Pragmatic Interpretation [Seite 203]
9.1.4 - 5.1.4 Abduction in Structured Discourses [Seite 204]
9.1.5 - 5.1.5 Conclusion [Seite 208]
9.2 - 5.2 Minimal Model Generation [Seite 210]
9.2.1 - 5.2.1 Herbrand Models for First-Order Languages [Seite 210]
9.2.2 - 5.2.2 Generation of Discourse Models [Seite 212]
9.2.3 - 5.2.3 Minimality of Models [Seite 215]
9.2.4 - 5.2.4 Minimal Models and Discourse Anaphora [Seite 217]
9.2.4.1 - 5.2.4.1 Resolving Pronouns by Model Generation [Seite 217]
9.2.4.2 - 5.2.4.2 Equality by Default [Seite 220]
9.2.5 - 5.2.5 Conclusion [Seite 223]
9.3 - 5.3 Segmented Discourse Representation Theory [Seite 224]
9.3.1 - 5.3.1 Representing Discourse Structures [Seite 225]
9.3.2 - 5.3.2 Constructing Discourse Structures [Seite 228]
9.3.2.1 - 5.3.2.1 The Logic of Underspecified Information Content [Seite 228]
9.3.2.2 - 5.3.2.2 The Glue Logic [Seite 229]
9.3.2.3 - 5.3.2.3 Discourse Update [Seite 233]
9.3.2.4 - 5.3.2.4 Constraining Attachment [Seite 234]
9.3.2.5 - 5.3.2.5 Maximize Discourse Coherence [Seite 236]
9.3.3 - 5.3.3 Conclusion [Seite 237]
10 - 6 Bridging Inferences [Seite 240]
10.1 - 6.1 Bridging Anaphora [Seite 240]
10.1.1 - 6.1.1 A Preliminary Classification [Seite 241]
10.1.2 - 6.1.2 Corpus Studies on Anaphoric Expressions [Seite 242]
10.1.3 - 6.1.3 Psycholinguistic Investigations [Seite 246]
10.1.4 - 6.1.4 A Refined Classification [Seite 250]
10.2 - 6.2 Bridging Relations [Seite 254]
10.2.1 - 6.2.1 Mereological Relations [Seite 256]
10.2.2 - 6.2.2 Relations Involving Events and Frames [Seite 257]
10.3 - 6.3 Anaphora Resolution by Bridging Inferences [Seite 259]
10.3.1 - 6.3.1 Pragmatic Accounts [Seite 259]
10.3.2 - 6.3.2 Computational Accounts [Seite 261]
10.3.2.1 - 6.3.2.1 Minimal Models for Bridging Anaphora [Seite 261]
10.3.2.2 - 6.3.2.2 Automated Anaphora Resolution (Freitas, 2005) [Seite 263]
10.3.3 - 6.3.3 Bridging in SDRT [Seite 267]
10.3.3.1 - 6.3.3.1 Representing Bridging Anaphora [Seite 268]
10.3.3.2 - 6.3.3.2 Resolving Bridging Anaphora [Seite 271]
10.3.3.3 - 6.3.3.3 Extending SDRT by Equality by Default [Seite 275]
10.4 - 6.4 Conclusion [Seite 279]
11 - 7 Bridges Between Events [Seite 280]
11.1 - 7.1 Frame Semantics and FrameNet [Seite 280]
11.1.1 - 7.1.1 Frame Semantics [Seite 280]
11.1.2 - 7.1.2 FrameNet [Seite 281]
11.1.2.1 - 7.1.2.1 Lexical Units [Seite 282]
11.1.2.2 - 7.1.2.2 Frame Elements [Seite 283]
11.1.2.3 - 7.1.2.3 Relations between Frames [Seite 286]
11.1.2.4 - 7.1.2.4 Relations between Frame Elements [Seite 290]
11.2 - 7.2 Building Bridges using FrameNet and SDRT [Seite 292]
11.2.1 - 7.2.1 Integrating FrameNet and SDRT [Seite 292]
11.2.2 - 7.2.2 Representing Frame Elements in SDRT [Seite 293]
11.2.3 - 7.2.3 Establishing Discourse Relations by FrameNet Data [Seite 299]
11.3 - 7.3 Constraints on Bridging Inferences [Seite 302]
11.3.1 - 7.3.1 Bridging Constraints [Seite 303]
11.3.1.1 - 7.3.1.1 The Preference for Coreference [Seite 303]
11.3.1.2 - 7.3.1.2 Plausibility and Consistency [Seite 304]
11.3.1.3 - 7.3.1.3 The Right Frontier Constraint [Seite 306]
11.3.1.4 - 7.3.1.4 Maximize Discourse Coherence [Seite 308]
11.3.2 - 7.3.2 Weak Discourse Referents as Bridging Anchors [Seite 310]
11.4 - 7.4 Related Approaches [Seite 312]
11.4.1 - 7.4.1 Implicit Arguments as A-definites (Koenig & Mauner, 1999) [Seite 312]
11.4.2 - 7.4.2 Bridging as Coercive Accommodation (Bos et al., 1995) [Seite 314]
11.4.3 - 7.4.3 FrameNet and DRT (Bos & Nissim, 2008) [Seite 318]
11.5 - 7.5 Conclusion [Seite 319]
12 - 8 Bridging by Clitic Left Dislocation [Seite 322]
12.1 - 8.1 Dislocation Constructions Across Languages [Seite 322]
12.1.1 - 8.1.1 Left Dislocation vs. Topicalization [Seite 322]
12.1.2 - 8.1.2 Left Dislocation vs. Focus Fronting [Seite 324]
12.1.3 - 8.1.3 Hanging Topic Left Dislocation vs. Clitic Left Dislocation [Seite 324]
12.1.4 - 8.1.4 Clitic Left Dislocation in Spanish [Seite 327]
12.2 - 8.2 Discourse Functions of Left Dislocation [Seite 329]
12.2.1 - 8.2.1 CLLD and Familiarity [Seite 331]
12.2.1.1 - 8.2.1.1 Given Entities [Seite 331]
12.2.1.2 - 8.2.1.2 Inferrable Entities [Seite 332]
12.2.1.3 - 8.2.1.3 New Entities [Seite 335]
12.2.2 - 8.2.2 CLLD and Discourse Topic [Seite 335]
12.2.2.1 - 8.2.2.1 Topic Change [Seite 336]
12.2.2.2 - 8.2.2.2 Topic Continuity [Seite 339]
12.2.2.3 - 8.2.2.3 Conclusion [Seite 341]
12.2.3 - 8.2.3 CLLD, Contrast, and Constraints on Discourse Structure [Seite 342]
12.2.3.1 - 8.2.3.1 CLLD and Contrast [Seite 342]
12.2.3.2 - 8.2.3.2 Constraints on Discourse Structure [Seite 344]
12.2.3.3 - 8.2.3.3 Discussion [Seite 348]
12.3 - 8.3 Semantics and Discourse Integration of Left Dislocations [Seite 349]
12.3.1 - 8.3.1 From Syntax to Semantics [Seite 349]
12.3.2 - 8.3.2 Towards a Discourse Semantic Representation of CLLD [Seite 352]
12.3.3 - 8.3.3 Resolving Mereological Bridging Anaphora [Seite 354]
12.3.3.1 - 8.3.3.1 Building Bridges via CLLD [Seite 354]
12.3.3.2 - 8.3.3.2 Using Frame Information for Building Bridges [Seite 360]
12.3.4 - 8.3.4 Resolving Frame-related Bridging Anaphora [Seite 366]
12.4 - 8.4 Conclusion [Seite 371]
13 - Summary [Seite 374]
14 - List of Figures and Tables [Seite 382]
15 - List of Abbreviations [Seite 386]
16 - A Note on Used Corpora [Seite 388]
17 - Bibliography [Seite 390]
18 - Citation Index [Seite 414]
19 - Subject Index [Seite 420]