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This book provides in-depth coverage of the sources, dispersion, life cycle assessment strategies, physico-chemical interactions, methods of analysis, toxicological investigation, and remediation strategies of micro and nanoplastics.
Micro and nanoplastics are the degradation products of large plastic compounds. These degraded polymers enter into the natural environment, including air, water, and food, which leads to various significant threats to human health. The nature of these micro and nanoplastics is persistent and consequently accumulates in the exposed person's body. Research into microplastics has shown that these particles accumulate in various human organs and impart detrimental effects on humans. To safeguard human health, analysis and remediation strategies are necessary. This book provides a comprehensive overview in 24 chapters on the source, distribution, life cycle assessment strategies, physico-chemical interactions, methods of analysis, toxicological investigation, and remediation strategies of micro and nanoplastics.
Audience
This book is a valuable resource for chemists and polymer scientists in various industries including plastics, fisheries, food and beverages, environmental sciences, agriculture, and medicine, as well as government policymakers.
Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in the multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of awards, including the Department of Science and Technology, India, Fast-Track Young Scientist Award, and Young Researcher of the Year Award 2020 from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published about 210 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 170 edited books with multiple well-known publishers. His current research interests include ion exchange materials, sensors for heavy metal ions, biofuel cells, supercapacitors, and bending actuators.
Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of the Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management and converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material. He also researches natural extracts and their application in generating value-added products such as nanomaterials.
Virgínia Cruz Fernandes, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute of Engineering of Porto, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal. She obtained a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Porto in 2012. Her interests include toxicology, human health, and nutrition. Her research addresses the analytical process and data processing using analytics techniques. She has published 50 publications in international peer journals, eight book chapters, and received 11 awards.
Preface xix
1 Aging Process of Microplastics in the Environment 1Sílvia D. Martinho, Virgínia Cruz Fernandes, Sónia A. Figueiredo and Cristina Delerue-Matos
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Impact of MPs on the Environment 3
1.3 Pristine and Aged Microplastics 4
1.4 Influence of Aging Processes in the Properties of MPs 7
1.5 Simulation in the Laboratory of the Different Aging Effects 10
1.6 Conclusion 13
2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Bioplastics 21A. L. Tecorralco-Bobadilla, A. Vázquez-Morillas, G. González-Cardoso and P. X. Sotelo-Navarro
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Purpose and Approach of this Chapter 24
2.3 Development of Life Cycle Assessments for Bioplastics 26
2.4 Discussion 47
2.5 Concluding Remarks 54
3 Micro- and Nanoplastics--An Invisible Threat to Human Health 61Anamika Singh, Anjali Joseph, Thyagaraju Badanavalu Madaiah and Shinomol George Kunnel
3.1 Introduction 61
3.2 Routes of Exposure 62
3.3 Phenomenon of Microplastics in Nourishment and Nutrients 65
3.4 Impact of Microplastics and Nanoplastics on Mammalian Health 66
3.5 Nanoplastics and Microplastics: Effects on Environment and Marine Life 67
3.6 Conclusions 68
4 Microplastics and Nanoplastics and Related Chemicals: The Physical-Chemical Interactions 73Elsa Cherian, Lakshmi Mohan and Sony Elizebeth Manoj
4.1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanoplastics 73
4.2 Sources and Distribution of Micro- and Nanoplastics 76
4.3 Ecological Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics 76
4.4 Food Contamination and Human Exposure to Micro- and Nanoplastics 78
4.5 Toxicological Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Health 79
4.6 Conclusions and Recommendations for Mitigating the Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics 82
5 Microplastics and Nanoplastics: Sources, Distribution, Behaviors, and Fate 87Minoo Giyahchi and Hamid Moghimi
5.1 Micro- and Nanoplastics: Principles and Sources 88
5.2 Micro- and Nanoplastic Behavior 89
5.3 Micro- and Nanoplastics' Distribution and Fate: From Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments to the Human Body 95
5.4 The Effect of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on MNPs' Behavior and Fate 100
5.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 101
6 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Food 107Asra Tariq and Ghaus Rizvi
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 Sources of Micro-Nanoplastics Affecting Food 109
6.3 Impact of Micro-Nanoplastics 114
6.4 Direct Impact on Human Health 114
6.5 Affecting the Food Chain 116
6.6 Detection of Micro-Nanoplastics in Food 116
6.7 Conclusion 118
7 Microplastics: Properties, Effect on the Environment and Removal Methods 125Anirudh Pratap Singh Raman, Pallavi Jain and Prashant Singh
7.1 An Insight Into Microplastics (MPs) 125
7.2 Microplastic Definitions 126
7.3 Properties of MPs 126
7.4 Primary and Secondary Microplastics 127
7.5 Microbeads 128
7.6 Impacts of MPs 128
7.7 Global Initiatives 133
7.7.1 United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14) 133
7.8 Conclusion 134
8 Identification, Quantification, and Presence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Beverages Around the World 139Lobato-Rocha Sheila Liliana Dafne, Cruz-Salas Arely Areanely, Rodríguez-Villa Aylin Geraldine, Tapia-Fuentes Jocelyn and Álvarez-Zeferino Juan Carlos
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Methodology 141
8.3 Results 142
8.4 Microplastic Concentrations in Beverages 148
8.5 Microplastic Characterization in Beverages 150
8.6 Human Exposure 155
8.7 Conclusions 156
9 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Systems 163Nigina, V. Sajith and Baiju G. Nair
9.1 Introduction 163
9.2 Micro/Nanoplastics in Soil 165
9.3 Micro/Nanoplastics in Plants 168
9.4 Micro/Nanoplastics in Terrestrial Organism 196
9.5 Conclusion 198
10 Microplastics in Cosmetics and Personal Care Products 215Ana Isabel Hernandez-Soriano, Carolina Martínez-Salvador, Juan Carlos Alvarez-Zeferino, Alethia Vázquez-Morillas and M. Azahara Mesa-Jurado
10.1 Introduction 215
10.2 Methodology 218
10.3 Results 219
10.4 Characterization of Microplastics in PCPs and Cosmetics 220
10.5 Interaction Between Microplastics from PCPs and Other Substances 227
10.6 Toxicity of Microplastics from Personal Care Products and Cosmetics 228
10.7 Worldwide Bans on Microbeads in PCPs and Cosmetics 246
10.8 Conclusions 248
11 Study on Microplastic Content in Cosmetic Products and Their Detrimental Effect on Human Health 253Venkatramana Losetty, Gosu Nageswara Reddy, C. Hazarathaiah Yadav and K. Sivakumar
11.1 Introduction 253
11.2 Cosmetic Products in India 255
11.3 Source of Plastics and Microplastics 256
11.4 Uptake and Bio-Accumulation of Microplastics 257
11.5 Effect of Microplastic Exposure on Human Health 258
11.6 Alternatives of Microplastics in Cosmetic Products 260
11.7 Conclusions 262
12 Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Genome 265Priyadarshi Mukherjee, Ananya Ghosal, Chayani Mukherjee, Ahana Bhaduri and Mukesh Singh
12.1 Introduction 265
12.2 Source of Micro- and Nanoplastics 266
12.3 Pathways Through Which Micro- and Nanoplastics Enter the Food Chain 270
12.4 Harmful Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics on Human Health 272
12.5 Impacts of Micro- and Nanoplastics on the Genome of Humans 274
12.6 Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics 276
12.6.1 Several Toxic Effects of Nano- and Microplastics 277
12.7 Case Study on a Small Regional Place of India (Puducherry) 278
12.8 Conclusion 278
13 Harmful Effects of Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics 285Niharika Kulshrestha and Anjani Kumar Rai
13.1 Introduction 285
13.2 Generation of MPs and NPs 286
13.3 Techniques for MP and NP Measurement 287
13.4 Various Methods for the Degradation of Plastics 289
13.5 Harmful Effects of Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics 290
13.6 Measures to Avoid the Further Extension of Harmful Effects of Plastics, Microplastics, and Nanoplastics 293
13.7 Conclusions 294
14 Hazardous Effects of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Marine Environment 301Smithi Vibha Toppo, Rakesh Gunasekhar, Revathi Ravind and Shinomol George Kunnel
14.1 Introduction 301
14.2 Fate and Sources of Microplastics 304
14.3 Minimizing the Microplastics in the Environment 309
14.4 Severance of Microplastics from Water and Sediments 310
14.5 Marine Microbial Strains Associated in Degrading Microplastics 311
14.6 Work Done in our Laboratory 313
14.7 Conclusions 313
15 Human Toxicity of Nano- and Microplastics 321Arely A. Cruz Salas, Maribel Velasco Perez, Ana Laura Tecorralco Bobadilla, Alethia Vázquez Morillas and Rosa María Espinosa Valdemar
15.1 Introduction 321
15.2 Basic Toxicology Concepts 322
15.3 Challenges and Opportunities for Evaluation of Toxicity in Humans 323
15.4 Toxicity Studies With Nano- and Microplastics 330
15.5 Toxicity of Nano- and Microplastic Reported in the Literature 332
15.6 Conclusions 337
16 Plastic-Related Chemicals: Occurrence in Environment and Ecotoxicological Impacts 347Diana Rede, Cristina Delerue-Matos and Virgínia Cruz Fernandes
16.1 Introduction 347
16.2 Plasticizers 349
16.3 Flame Retardants 358
16.4 Human Exposure to Flame Retardants 367
16.5 Conclusion 369
17 The Invisible Threat: Micronanoplastic Materials 375Anupama Rajput, Shagufta Jabin, Sadiqa Abbas and Prachika Rajput
17.1 Introduction 375
17.2 Microplastic and Toxic Chemicals 377
17.3 Organic Pollutants 378
17.4 Microplastic Toxic Chemical Interaction 382
17.5 Toxicity to Human 385
17.6 Toxicity to Environment 386
17.7 Impact of MiNaPs on Marine Environment and Terrestrial Habitat 387
17.8 Conclusion 388
18 Comparative Analysis of the Toxicity of Micro- and Nanoplastics along with Nanoparticles on the Ecosystem 399Pooja Mohapatra, Lipsa Shubhadarshinee, Bigyan Ranjan Jali, Aruna Kumar Barick and Priyaranjan Mohapatra
18.1 Introduction 399
18.2 Literature Survey 402
18.3 Exposure to Ecosystem and Translocation 403
18.4 Challenges and Precautions 411
18.5 Conclusions 412
19 Methods for Micro- and Nanoplastic Analysis 415Veronice Slusarski-Santana, Melissa Longen Panatto, Fernanda Rengel dos Passos, Keiti Lopes Maestre, Carina Contini Triques, Leila Denise Fiorentin-Ferrari and Mônica Lady Fiorese
19.1 Introduction 415
19.2 Micro- and Nanoplastics: Source, Occurrence, and Risks 417
19.3 Pre-Treatment of Micro- and Nanoplastic Samples 419
19.4 Methods for Characterization, Identification, and Quantification of Micro- and Nanoplastics 423
19.5 Conclusions 459
20 New Approaches for Micro(Nano)Plastics Analysis 471elkamu Biyana Regasa
20.1 Introduction 471
20.2 Global Plastic Production and Its Waste Generation 472
20.3 Sources and Health Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics 473
20.4 Sample Collection Methods 475
20.5 Emerging Analytical Approaches 477
20.6 Single Analytical Methods 477
20.7 Hyphenated Analytical Techniques 481
20.8 Current Trends and Future Perspectives 483
20.9 Conclusions 484
21 Enzyme-Catalyzed Biodegradation of Micro- and Nanoplastics 493Masoud Salehipour, Shahla Rezaei, Ali Motaharian, Shokoufeh Nikpour, Mohammad Shaban and Mehdi Mogharabi-Manzari
21.1 Introduction 493
21.2 Degradation of Plastics 495
21.3 Enzyme-Based Degradation of Plastics 497
21.4 Conclusion 501
22 Remediation Strategies for Micro(Nano)Plastics 505Aylin Geraldine Rodríguez Villa, Sheila Liliana Dafne Lobato Rocha, Jocelyn Tapia Flores, Juan Carlos Álvarez Zeferino and Arely Areanely Cruz Salas
22.1 Introduction 505
22.2 Methods for the Removal of Micro(Nano)Plastics from the Environment 506
22.3 Comparison of Different Removal Methods 531
22.4 Prevention and Reduction of Microplastic Pollution 533
22.5 Conclusions 535
23 Removal of Microplastics and Nanoplastics From Water 541J.E. Castanheiro, P.A. Mourão and I. Cansado
23.1 Introduction 541
23.2 Sponge/Aerogel Materials to Remove MPs and NPs 542
23.3 Materials With Metals to Remove MPs and NPs 544
23.4 Biochar as Material to Remove the MPs and NPs 545
23.5 Additional Materials to Remove MPs and NPs 547
23.6 Conclusion 548
24 Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Aquatic Systems 553Alsha Subash and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian
24.1 Introduction 553
24.2 A Theoretical Assessment of MP and NP Migration and Fate Aquatic Environment 555
24.3 Pollution in Marine Environment 556
24.4 Toxicity Comparison of MPs and NPs 559
24.5 Regulatory Policy 569
24.6 Environmental Implication and Conclusion 569
Acknowledgments 570
References 571
Index 575
Micro- and nanoplastics are the degradation products of large plastic compounds. These degraded polymers enter into the natural environment including air, water, and food, which leads to various significant threats to human health. The nature of these micro- and nanoplastics is persistent and consequently accumulates in the exposed person's body. Research into microplastics has shown that these particles accumulate in various human organs and impart detrimental effects on humans. To safeguard human health, analysis and remediation strategies are necessary.
This book provides a comprehensive overview on the source, distribution, life cycle assessment strategies, physico-chemical interactions, methods of analysis, toxicological investigation, and remediation strategies of micro- and nanoplastics. It is an invaluable resource for academics, researchers, post-doctoral and Ph.D. students, the polymer industry, environment agencies, food and beverage professionals, etc.
Chapter 1 explains the effect of natural processes that microplastics undergo in the environment (e.g., radiation, physical abrasion, chemical reactions, and biodegradation), which causes an increase in their ability to adsorb other pollutants and transport them. The chapter also outlines the analytical techniques used to evaluate the chemical and physical changes.
Chapter 2 presents life cycle analysis and its stages as applied to new materials called "biobased," which have emerged as an alternative to replace the use of plastics. The main focus of this chapter is to assess the environmental impacts of bioplastics versus petrochemical plastics and their sustainability.
Chapter 3 discusses micro- and nanoplastics as an invisible threat to human health. It reviews the various routes of exposure, the phenomenon of microplastics in nourishment and nutrients, and the impact of microplastics and nanoplastics on mammalian health and their effect on marine life.
Chapter 4 explains how the small plastic particles known as micro- and nanoplastics have become a significant environmental concern due to their widespread presence in various ecosystems. The toxic effects of these particles on the environment, food, and human health are a growing concern that requires more attention and action from governments, industries, and individuals. Reducing plastic waste and promoting the use of more sustainable alternatives can help mitigate this issue and protect our planet and health.
Chapter 5 discusses the probable sources of micro- and nanoplastics, and details their hazardous effects on different environments, including terrestrial, aqueous, atmosphere, wastewater treatment plants, and their resident organisms. It also explains the journey of these particles from their production source to their final destination.
Chapter 6 covers the routes through which micro- and nanoplastics can become part of our food and their possible toxic effects on human bodies and the food chain. Two primary ways that these plastic particles enter food products is through plastic food packaging or by being ingested by animals and absorbed into plants. This chapter explains how the side effects of MPs and NPs on human lives depend on numerous factors, such as plastic chemical functionality and biocompatibility, size, and amount of plastic ingested.
Chapter 7 discusses the microplastic, properties, types, and their impact on the environment in detail. Great attention is paid to various methods of eliminating microplastics. The chapter also includes goals and initiatives taken by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 14).
Chapter 8 analyzes the presence of micro- and nanoplastics in different types of beverages. It presents the classification of the analyzed beverages; the methods used for the quantification of micro- and nanoplastics; the characteristics of the particles; and their origin. Human exposure from the consumption of these products is also discussed.
Chapter 9 focuses on the effect of micro- and nanoplastics that end up in the terrestrial environment. It looks at their interaction with soil and plants while outlining their migration and accumulation inside the plant, and calculating their potential effect. The chapter also discusses the impact of micro- and nano plastics on terrestrial communities, including microbes and humans.
Chapter 10 addresses the presence of microplastics in personal care products (PCPs). The information is organized by three topics: the characterization of PM extracted from PCPs, their interactions with other substances, and toxicity. The chapter explains how the use of these products is alarming due to their wide use and risks to the environment.
Chapter 11 reveals how the various chemical compositions including plastics and microplastics are mixed into desired concentrations when manufacturing cosmetics. It discusses, too, the main sources of plastics and microplastics and their growth in India. The effect of cosmetics on human health is explained. Finally, alternative products to plastics and microplastics for use in cosmetics are listed.
Chapter 12 delves into the detrimental impact of micro- and nanoplastics on the human genome. The introduction of such particles into the ecosystem, and ultimately to the human body, is explained. This chapter presents an thorough toxicological analysis of these particles, shedding light on the urgent need for proactive measures to safeguard our ecosystem.
Chapter 13 discusses the generation, as well as the techniques for the measurement and identification, of micro- and nanoplastics. Various degradation methods are also discussed, as are the harmful effects of plastics, nanoplastics, and microplastics. Measures to avoid the production of plastics, nanoplastics, and microplastics are emphasized.
Chapter 14 details the source and hazardous effects of micro- and nanoplastics in marine environments. Additionally, it elaborates on the damages caused by the plastic pollution on air, water, and soil. Methods for decreasing microplastics in the environment are also discussed, along with the severance of microplastics from water, sediments, and marine microbial strains associated with degrading microplastics.
Chapter 15 reviews the advances and challenges in assessing the toxicity of micro- and nanoplastics (MPs and NPs) in human beings. An analysis of 85 research articles is also presented. Results show that in most cases there is a negative effect associated with MPs and NPs, but this chapter explains how methodology differences don't allow the establishment of cause-effect relationships.
Chapter 16 delves into the extensive impact of plasticizers and flame retardants on ecosystems and human health. The presence of plasticizers and flame retardants in various environments raises concerns about potential ecotoxicological effects. This chapter explains how bridging knowledge gaps and promoting safer alternatives are crucial to address the risks posed by these additives.
Chapter 17 details the invisible threat of micro- and nanoplastic materials on mankind and the environment. It discusses the harmful effects of inorganic and organic contaminants that are present in MPs and NPs. Inorganic contaminants primarily include heavy metals and pesticides. However, organic contaminants are persistent organic pollutants, and the impact of persistent organic pollutants and inorganic contaminants on the environment are presented in detail.
Chapter 18 compares the toxicity of microplastics, nanoplastics, and nanoparticles in the ecosystems. Smaller particles can penetrate organisms and tissues leading to more severe impacts. Their unique properties increase reactivity and oxidative stress, raising concerns about bioaccumulation and higher trophic levels. This chapter explains why urgent mitigation strategies are needed to protect ecosystems from these pervasive pollutants.
Chapter 19 discusses the occurrence and sources of micro- and nanoplastics and the pretreatments performed in the samples. Additionally, it thoroughly discusses several techniques that can be used to characterize, identify, and quantify them. Furthermore, this chapter presents a general overview of the advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of those techniques.
Chapter 20 presents new analytical approaches for the analysis of micro- and nanoplastics in the environment. Microscopic, spectroscopic, thermal, and electroanalytical techniques are commonly used for the analysis of MPs and NPs. The chapter describes the development of analytical techniques for monitoring plastic pollution based on single and combined methods.
Chapter 21 details various enzymes that are applied for the biodegradation of micro- and nanoplastics. In this chapter, the advantages of enzymatic approaches compared to conventional methods are presented. The mechanism of enzyme-catalyzed degradation of plastics is also discussed, as are some examples from biodegradation of synthetic polymers that use various enzymes.
Chapter 22 explains how the most common physical, chemical, and biological techniques work to remove micro- and nanoplastics. Some of the most relevant findings found in the literature for each technique are presented, as are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of removal technique.
Chapter 23 details the different materials used to remove the micro- and nanoplastics from the water. This chapter explains how to use sponge/aerogel materials, materials with metals, and biochar to remove MPs and NPs. Also, remediation methods that...
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