Neurobiology of Motor Control

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright [Seite 6]
4 - Contents [Seite 7]
5 - List of Contributors [Seite 15]
6 - About the Cover [Seite 19]
7 - Chapter 1 Introduction [Seite 21]
7.1 - References [Seite 25]
8 - Chapter 2 Electrophysiological Recording Techniques [Seite 27]
8.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 27]
8.2 - 2.2 Terminology [Seite 28]
8.3 - 2.3 Intracellular and Patch Clamp Recording [Seite 29]
8.3.1 - 2.3.1 Recording Electrodes [Seite 29]
8.3.2 - 2.3.2 Current-Clamp: Measuring Transmembrane Potential [Seite 32]
8.3.3 - 2.3.3 Voltage Clamp: Measuring Transmembrane Current [Seite 35]
8.3.3.1 - 2.3.3.1 Voltage Clamp with Transmembrane Potential as Reference [Seite 35]
8.3.3.2 - 2.3.3.2 Voltage Clamp with Preparation (Bath) Ground as Reference [Seite 36]
8.4 - 2.4 Extracellular Recording and Stimulation [Seite 37]
8.5 - 2.5 A Brief History of Electrophysiological Recording [Seite 41]
8.6 - 2.6 Concepts Important to Understanding Neuron Recording Techniques [Seite 47]
8.6.1 - 2.6.1 Membrane Properties [Seite 47]
8.6.2 - 2.6.2 Intracellular Recording [Seite 49]
8.6.3 - 2.6.3 Extracellular Recording [Seite 52]
8.6.3.1 - 2.6.3.1 Intracellular Action Potential Shape [Seite 53]
8.6.3.2 - 2.6.3.2 Axon Embedded in Uniform, Infinite Volume Conductor [Seite 53]
8.6.3.3 - 2.6.3.3 Variations in Extracellular Action Potential Shape Induced by Non-Uniform, Non-Infinite Volume Conductors [Seite 62]
8.6.3.4 - 2.6.3.4 Bipolar Recording [Seite 64]
8.6.3.5 - 2.6.3.5 Extracellular Action Potential Summary [Seite 66]
8.7 - Acknowledgements [Seite 67]
8.8 - References [Seite 67]
9 - Chapter 3 Multi-Unit Recording [Seite 75]
9.1 - 3.1 Introduction [Seite 75]
9.2 - 3.2 Chapter Organization and Expository Choices [Seite 76]
9.3 - 3.3 Hardware [Seite 77]
9.4 - 3.4 Spike Sorting Methods [Seite 80]
9.5 - Endnotes [Seite 89]
9.6 - References [Seite 90]
10 - Chapter 4 The "New Math" of Neuroscience: Genetic Tools for Accessing and Electively Manipulating Neurons [Seite 95]
10.1 - 4.1 Introduction [Seite 95]
10.2 - 4.2 Restricting Gene Expression to Specific Neurons [Seite 96]
10.2.1 - 4.2.1 Promoter Bashing, Enhancer Trapping: Binary Systems for Targeted Gene Expression [Seite 97]
10.2.2 - 4.2.2 Intersectional Strategies [Seite 101]
10.2.3 - 4.2.3 Temporally Inducible Systems [Seite 102]
10.3 - 4.3 Tracing, Manipulating, and Monitoring Neurons [Seite 104]
10.3.1 - 4.3.1 Tracing Neuronal Projections and Connections with Fluorescent Reporters [Seite 104]
10.3.2 - 4.3.2 Viral Tracers for Mapping Neural Connections [Seite 105]
10.3.3 - 4.3.3 Manipulating Neuronal Function [Seite 107]
10.3.4 - 4.3.4 Monitoring Neuronal Activity [Seite 110]
10.4 - 4.4 Case Studies [Seite 112]
10.5 - 4.5 Future Perspective [Seite 118]
10.6 - References [Seite 118]
11 - Chapter 5 Computer Simulation-Power and Peril [Seite 127]
11.1 - 5.1 Introduction [Seite 127]
11.2 - 5.2 Why Model? [Seite 127]
11.3 - 5.3 Modeling Approaches [Seite 130]
11.4 - 5.4 Model Optimization and Validation [Seite 138]
11.5 - 5.5 Beyond Purely Computational Models [Seite 140]
11.6 - 5.6 Fundamental Concepts and Frequently Used Models in Motor Control [Seite 141]
11.6.1 - 5.6.1 How to Predict the Future [Seite 141]
11.6.2 - 5.6.2 Neuron Models [Seite 143]
11.6.3 - 5.6.3 Synapse Models [Seite 147]
11.6.4 - 5.6.4 Muscle Models [Seite 148]
11.6.5 - 5.6.5 Biomechanical Models [Seite 148]
11.7 - 5.7 The Future [Seite 149]
11.8 - Acknowledgements [Seite 150]
11.9 - References [Seite 150]
12 - Chapter 6 Evolution of Motor Systems [Seite 155]
12.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 155]
12.2 - 6.2 Phylogenetics [Seite 156]
12.3 - 6.3 Homology and Homoplasy [Seite 158]
12.4 - 6.4 Levels of Biological Organization [Seite 159]
12.5 - 6.5 Homologous Neurons [Seite 159]
12.6 - 6.6 Deep Homology [Seite 162]
12.7 - 6.7 Homoplasy [Seite 165]
12.8 - 6.8 Convergence in Central Pattern Generators [Seite 170]
12.9 - 6.9 Evolutionary Loss [Seite 172]
12.10 - 6.10 Evolution of Novel Motor Behaviors [Seite 172]
12.11 - 6.11 Three Scenarios for the Evolution of Novel Behavior [Seite 174]
12.11.1 - 6.11.1 Generalist Neural Circuitry [Seite 174]
12.11.2 - 6.11.2 Rewired Circuitry [Seite 177]
12.11.3 - 6.11.3 Functional Rewiring with Neuromodulation [Seite 179]
12.12 - 6.12 Motor System Evolvability [Seite 181]
12.13 - 6.13 Neuron Duplication and Parcellation [Seite 182]
12.14 - 6.14 Divergence of Neural Circuitry [Seite 184]
12.15 - 6.15 Summary and Conclusions [Seite 185]
12.16 - Acknowledgements [Seite 185]
12.17 - References [Seite 185]
13 - Chapter 7 Motor Pattern Selection [Seite 197]
13.1 - 7.1 Introduction to Motor Pattern Selection in Vertebrates and Invertebrates [Seite 198]
13.1.1 - References [Seite 199]
13.2 - 7.2 Selection of Action-A Vertebrate Perspective [Seite 201]
13.2.1 - 7.2.1 Introduction [Seite 201]
13.2.2 - 7.2.2 Control of Locomotory Outputs [Seite 202]
13.2.3 - 7.2.3 The Organization and Role of the Basal Ganglia [Seite 204]
13.2.4 - 7.2.4 Conceptual Model of the Organization Underlying Selection of Behavior [Seite 207]
13.2.5 - 7.2.5 The Organization of Motor Control From Cortex (Pallium in Lower Vertebrates) [Seite 209]
13.2.6 - 7.2.6 The Relative Role of Different Forebrain Structures for Selection of Behavior [Seite 209]
13.2.7 - Acknowledgements [Seite 210]
13.2.8 - References [Seite 211]
13.3 - 7.3 Motor Pattern Selection and Initiation in Invertebrates with an Emphasis on Insects [Seite 215]
13.3.1 - 7.3.1 Introduction [Seite 215]
13.3.2 - 7.3.2 Organization Principles of Relevant Sensory Systems [Seite 216]
13.3.3 - 7.3.3 Movement-Generating Neural Networks in Invertebrates [Seite 216]
13.3.4 - 7.3.4 Motor Pattern Selection in Invertebrates [Seite 217]
13.3.4.1 - 7.3.4.1 Probabilistic "Selection": Intrinsically Variable CPGs in Mollusk Feeding [Seite 217]
13.3.4.2 - 7.3.4.2 Selection via CPG Coordination [Seite 218]
13.3.4.3 - 7.3.4.3 Selection by Neuromodulators or Neurohormones [Seite 218]
13.3.4.4 - 7.3.4.4 Selection by Command Neurons Not in the Brain [Seite 221]
13.3.4.5 - 7.3.4.5 The Brain is Crucial in the Motor Selection Process [Seite 222]
13.3.5 - 7.3.5 Two Case Studies [Seite 227]
13.3.6 - 7.3.6 Concluding Remarks on Invertebrates [Seite 233]
13.3.7 - 7.3.7 Are There Common Themes between Motor Pattern Selection in Invertebrates and Vertebrates? [Seite 233]
13.3.8 - References [Seite 236]
14 - Chapter 8 Neural Networks for the Generation of Rhythmic Motor Behaviors [Seite 245]
14.1 - 8.1 Introduction [Seite 245]
14.2 - 8.2 Concept of the Central Pattern Generator [Seite 245]
14.3 - 8.3 Overall Organization of Rhythmic Motor Networks [Seite 247]
14.4 - 8.4 Identification of CPG Neurons and Synapses: The "Wiring Diagram" [Seite 254]
14.5 - 8.5 Cellular Properties That Shape Network Output: Building Blocks for Network Operation [Seite 258]
14.6 - 8.6 Combined Neural Mechanisms for Rhythmogenesis [Seite 260]
14.7 - 8.7 Ionic Currents Shaping CPG Network Neuron Intrinsic Firing Properties [Seite 261]
14.7.1 - 8.7.1 Role of Outward Currents in Regulating Pacemaker and Network Activity [Seite 261]
14.7.2 - 8.7.2 Role of Inward Currents in the Generation of Pacemaker and Network Activity [Seite 263]
14.7.3 - 8.7.3 Interaction of Inward and Outward Currents in the Generation of Pacemaker Activity [Seite 265]
14.7.4 - 8.7.4 Homeostatic Plasticity and the Balance between Different Ion Channel Types [Seite 265]
14.7.5 - 8.7.5 Rapid Changes in Extracellular Ion Concentrations during Rhythmic Network Function [Seite 266]
14.8 - 8.8 Role of Network Synaptic Properties in Organizing Rhythmic Behaviors [Seite 266]
14.9 - 8.9 Variable Output from Motor Networks [Seite 269]
14.10 - 8.10 Conclusions [Seite 272]
14.11 - Acknowledgements [Seite 273]
14.12 - References [Seite 273]
15 - Chapter 9 Sensory Feedback in the Control of Posture and Locomotion [Seite 283]
15.1 - 9.1 Introduction [Seite 283]
15.2 - 9.2 History and Background of Feedback Control [Seite 284]
15.3 - 9.3 Classical Control Theory [Seite 284]
15.4 - 9.4 Nervous System Implementation in the Control of Posture and Limb Movements [Seite 287]
15.5 - 9.5 Organization and Function in Arthropods [Seite 294]
15.5.1 - 9.5.1 Locomotory System Gross Anatomy [Seite 294]
15.5.2 - 9.5.2 Proprioceptors and Exteroceptors [Seite 294]
15.5.3 - 9.5.3 Arthropod Nervous Systems [Seite 295]
15.5.4 - 9.5.4 Postures and Movement Commands [Seite 295]
15.5.5 - 9.5.5 Sensory Feedback in the Maintenance of Posture [Seite 295]
15.5.6 - 9.5.6 Sensory Feedback in Movement and Walking [Seite 296]
15.6 - 9.6 Organization and Function in Vertebrates [Seite 302]
15.6.1 - 9.6.1 Sensory Feedback in the Maintenance of Posture [Seite 302]
15.6.2 - 9.6.2 Sensory Feedback and its Integration with Motor Commands in Movement [Seite 305]
15.7 - 9.7 Conclusions [Seite 313]
15.8 - Acknowledgements [Seite 314]
15.9 - Endnote [Seite 314]
15.10 - References [Seite 314]
16 - Chapter 10 Coordination of Rhythmic Movements [Seite 325]
16.1 - 10.1 Introduction [Seite 325]
16.2 - 10.2 Overview of Invertebrate CPGs [Seite 326]
16.2.1 - 10.2.1 Stomatogastric Nervous System: Feeding Circuits in Decapod Crustacea [Seite 328]
16.2.2 - 10.2.2 Leech Locomotion [Seite 335]
16.2.3 - 10.2.3 Crayfish Swimmeret System [Seite 337]
16.2.4 - 10.2.4 Insect Locomotion [Seite 339]
16.2.5 - 10.2.5 Multiple Mechanisms Mediate Coordination in Invertebrate Systems [Seite 341]
16.3 - 10.3 Overview of Vertebrate CPGs [Seite 341]
16.3.1 - 10.3.1 General Characteristic of Vertebrate CPGs [Seite 342]
16.3.1.1 - 10.3.1.1 Locomotor CPGs [Seite 342]
16.3.1.2 - 10.3.1.2 Respiratory CPGs [Seite 343]
16.3.1.3 - 10.3.1.3 Feeding CPGs [Seite 344]
16.3.2 - 10.3.2 CPG Interactions within One Motor Function [Seite 344]
16.3.2.1 - 10.3.2.1 Unit Generators in Limbless Swimming Vertebrates [Seite 344]
16.3.2.2 - 10.3.2.2 Unit Generators in Mammalian Limbs [Seite 345]
16.3.3 - 10.3.3 CPGs Interactions for Different Motor Functions [Seite 347]
16.3.3.1 - 10.3.3.1 Coordination of Respiration and Swallowing [Seite 347]
16.3.3.2 - 10.3.3.2 Coordination of Locomotion and Respiration [Seite 348]
16.4 - 10.4 Conclusion [Seite 351]
16.5 - References [Seite 352]
17 - Chapter 11 Prehensile Movements [Seite 361]
17.1 - 11.1 Introduction: Prehension as Goal-Directed Behavior [Seite 361]
17.2 - 11.2 The Redundancy Problem in Motor Control [Seite 363]
17.3 - 11.3 Redundancy Occurs on Multiple Levels of the Motor System [Seite 366]
17.4 - 11.4 Overcoming the Redundancy Problem [Seite 369]
17.4.1 - 11.4.1 Invariant Movement Features [Seite 370]
17.4.2 - 11.4.2 Increasing the Number of Task Conditions [Seite 372]
17.4.3 - 11.4.3 Reducing the Number of DOFs [Seite 377]
17.5 - References [Seite 381]
18 - Chapter 12 Muscle, Biomechanics, and Implications for Neural Control [Seite 385]
18.1 - 12.1 Introduction [Seite 385]
18.2 - 12.2 Behavioral Context Determines How Motorneuron Activity Is Transformed into Muscle Force and Power [Seite 386]
18.2.1 - 12.2.1 The Neuromuscular Transform Is History-Dependent [Seite 387]
18.2.1.1 - 12.2.1.1 Motorneurons Are Subject to Neuromodulation and History-Dependence That Can Significantly Alter Their Output [Seite 388]
18.2.1.2 - 12.2.1.2 Presynaptic Neurotransmitter Release at the Neuromuscular Junction Is History-Dependent [Seite 388]
18.2.1.3 - 12.2.1.3 Post-Synaptic Muscle Excitation Is History-Dependent and Subject to Modulation [Seite 388]
18.2.1.4 - 12.2.1.4 Contractile Dynamics of Cross-Bridge Interactions Are History Dependent [Seite 389]
18.2.1.5 - 12.2.1.5 The Molecular Motors of Muscles Give Rise to the Functional and History-Dependent Properties of Muscle Force Generation [Seite 389]
18.2.2 - 12.2.2 Muscle Power Depends on Behavioral Context [Seite 391]
18.2.3 - 12.2.3 Muscle Specialization Reflects Behavioral Repertoire [Seite 393]
18.3 - 12.3 Organismal Structures Transform Muscle Force into Behavior [Seite 394]
18.3.1 - 12.3.1 Effects of Muscle Force Depend on the Properties of the Body and the Environment [Seite 395]
18.3.1.1 - 12.3.1.1 The Relative Importance of Inertial, Viscous, and Spring-Like Forces Affect the Role of Muscle Force [Seite 395]
18.3.1.2 - 12.3.1.2 Muscle Function Depends on Behavioral Context and Environmental Forces [Seite 397]
18.3.1.3 - 12.3.1.3 Biomechanical Affordances and Constraints of Body Structures Affect Muscle Functions [Seite 397]
18.3.2 - 12.3.2 Muscles Are Multi-Functional [Seite 401]
18.3.3 - 12.3.3 Specialization of Biomechanical Structures Reflect Behavioral Repertoire [Seite 405]
18.4 - 12.4 Biomechanics Defines Meaningful Patterns of Neural Activity [Seite 407]
18.4.1 - 12.4.1 Organismal Structures Are Multi-Functional [Seite 409]
18.4.2 - 12.4.2 Many Functionally-Equivalent Solutions Exist for Sensorimotor Tasks [Seite 412]
18.4.3 - 12.4.3 Structure and Variability in Motor Patterns Reflect Biomechanics [Seite 414]
18.4.4 - 12.4.4 Specialization of Neuromechanical Systems Reflect Behavioral Repertoire [Seite 419]
18.5 - 12.5 Conclusions [Seite 421]
18.6 - Acknowledgements [Seite 422]
18.7 - References [Seite 422]
19 - Chapter 13 Plasticity and Learning in Motor Control Networks [Seite 437]
19.1 - 13.1 Introduction [Seite 437]
19.2 - 13.2 Homeostatic Motor Network Assembly [Seite 438]
19.3 - 13.3 Short-Term Motor Learning Conferred by Sodium Pumps [Seite 440]
19.3.1 - 13.3.1 Swimming CPG Network Plasticity in Xenopus Frog Tadpoles [Seite 440]
19.3.2 - 13.3.2 Comparative Aspects of Na+ Pump Contribution to Neural Network Function [Seite 445]
19.4 - 13.4 CPG Network Plasticity and Motor Learning Conferred by Operant Conditioning [Seite 446]
19.5 - 13.5 Discussion and Conclusions [Seite 452]
19.6 - References [Seite 456]
20 - Chapter 14 Bio-inspired Robot Locomotion [Seite 463]
20.1 - 14.1 Introduction [Seite 463]
20.2 - 14.2 Mechanical Engineering Background and a Biological Example [Seite 464]
20.3 - 14.3 Legged Robots with Skeletal Structures [Seite 466]
20.3.1 - 14.3.1 Mechanism Design, Sensing, and Actuation [Seite 466]
20.3.2 - 14.3.2 Basic Dynamics of Legged Locomotion [Seite 467]
20.3.3 - 14.3.3 Trajectory-Oriented Walking Control [Seite 468]
20.3.4 - 14.3.4 Limit Cycle Walkers [Seite 470]
20.3.5 - 14.3.5 CPG-Based Control and Step-Phase Control [Seite 471]
20.4 - 14.4 Soft Robots [Seite 472]
20.4.1 - 14.4.1 Limitations and Advantages of Soft Materials [Seite 472]
20.4.2 - 14.4.2 The Challenges [Seite 473]
20.4.2.1 - 14.4.2.1 Actuators [Seite 473]
20.4.2.2 - 14.4.2.2 Sensors [Seite 475]
20.4.2.3 - 14.4.2.3 Control of Soft Robots [Seite 476]
20.4.3 - 14.4.3 Bioinspired Locomotion in Soft Robots [Seite 479]
20.5 - 14.5 Conclusion and Outlook [Seite 483]
20.6 - References [Seite 483]
21 - Index [Seite 493]
22 - EULA [Seite 511]