The Language of Trees

Branches, Leaves, Roots and Trunks

ROBERT MACFARLANE

THE WORD-HOARD

'Language is fossil poetry,' wrote Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1844, '[a]s the limestone of the continent consists of infinite masses of the shells of animalcules, so language is made up of images, or tropes, which now, in their secondary use, have long ceased to remind us of their poetic origin.' Emerson, as essayist, sought to reverse this petrification and restore the 'poetic origin' of words, thereby revealing the originary role of 'nature' in language. Considering the verb to consider, he reminds us that it comes from the Latin considerare, and thus carries a meaning of 'to study or see with the stars'. Etymology illuminates-a mundane verb is suddenly starlit. Many of the terms in the glossaries of landscape-language that I have collected over the last decade seem, at least to me, as yet unpetrified and still vivid with poetry. They function as topograms-tiny poems that conjure scenes.

There is no single mountain language, but a range of mountain languages; no one coastal language, but a fractal of coastal languages; no lone tree language, but a forest of tree languages. To celebrate the lexis of landscape is not nostalgic, but urgent. 'People exploit what they have merely concluded to be of value, but they defend what they love,' writes the American essayist and farmer Wendell Berry, 'and to defend what we love we need a particularising language, for we love what we particularly know.'

We are and always have been name-callers, christeners. Words are grained into our landscapes, and landscapes grained into our words. 'Every language is an old-growth forest of the mind,' in Wade Davis's memorable phrase. We see in words: in webs of words, wefts of words, woods of words. The roots of individual words reach out and intermesh, their stems lean and criss-cross, and their outgrowths branch and clasp.

'I want my writing to bring people not just to think of "trees" as they mostly do now,' wrote Roger Deakin in a notebook that was discovered after his early death, 'but of each individual tree, and each kind of tree.' John Muir, spending his first summer working as a shepherd among the pines of the Sierra Nevada in California, reflected in his journal that 'Every tree calls for special admiration. I have been making many sketches and regret that I cannot draw every needle.'

I have come to understand that although place-words are being lost, they are also being created. Nature is dynamic, and so is language. Loanwords from Chinese, Urdu, Korean, Portugese and Yiddish are right now being used to describe the landscapes of Britain and Ireland; portmanteaus and neologisms are constantly in manufacture. As I travelled I met new words as well as salvaging old ones: a painter in the Hebrides who used landskein to refer to the braid of blue horizon lines in hill country on a hazy day; a five-year-old girl who concocted honeyfur to describe the soft seeds of grasses held in the fingers.

BRANCHES, LEAVES, ROOTS AND TRUNKS

atchorn

acorn (Herefordshire)

balkcut

tree (Kent)

bannut-tree

walnut tree (Herefordshire)

beilleag

bark of a birch tree (Gaelic)

biests

wen-like protuberances on growing trees (East Anglia)

bole

main part of the trunk of a tree before it separates into branches (forestry)

bolling

permanent trunk left behind after pollarding (pronounced to rhyme with 'rolling') (forestry)

brattling

sloppings from felled trees (Northamptonshire)

breakneck, brokeneck

tree whose main stem has been snapped by the wind (forestry)

browse line

level above which large herbivores cannot browse woodland foliage (forestry)

burr

excrescence on base of tree: some broad-leaved trees with a burr, especially walnut, can be very valuable, the burr being prized for its internal patterning (forestry)

butt

lower part of the trunk of a tree (forestry)

cag

stump of a branch protruding from the tree (Herefordshire)

cant-mark

stub pollarded tree used to mark a land boundary (forestry)

celynnoga

bounding in holly (place-name element) (Welsh)

chats

dead sticks (Herefordshire)

chissom

first shoots of a newly cut coppice (Cotswolds)

cramble

boughs or branches of crooked and angular growth, used for craft or firewood (Yorkshire)

crank

dead branch of a tree (Cotswolds)

crìonach

rotten tree; brushwood (Gaelic)

daddock

dead wood (Herefordshire)

damage cycle

narrower rings in the stump of the tree, indicating the accidental loss of branches which are gradually replaced. Useful in helping to work out when and at what intervals a tree has been pollarded/coppiced (forestry)

deadfall

dead branch that falls from a tree as a result of wind or its own weight (forestry)

dodderold

pollard (Bedfordshire)

dosraich

abundance of branches (Gaelic)

dotard

decaying oak or sizeable single tree (Northamptonshire)

eirytall

clean-grown sapling (Cotswolds)

eller

nelder tree (Herefordshire)

flippety

young twig or branch that bends before a hook or clippers (Exmoor)

foxed

term applied to an old oak tree, when the centre becomes red and indicates decay (Northamptonshire)

frail

leaf skeleton (Banffshire)

griggles

small apples left on the tree (south-west England)

interarboration

intermixture of the branches of trees on opposite sides (used by Sir Thomas Browne in The Garden of Cyrus, 1658) (arboreal)

kosh

branch (Anglo-Romani)

lammas

second flush of growth in late summer by some species, e.g. oak (forestry)

leafmeal

tree's 'cast self,' disintegrating as fallen leaves (Gerard Manley Hopkins) (poetic)

lenticels

small pore in bark or a leaf for breathing (forestry)

maiden

tree which is not a coppice stool nor a pollard (forestry)

mute

stumps of trees and bushes left in the ground after felling (Exmoor)

nape

when laying a hedge, to cut the branch partly through so that it can be bent down (East Anglia)

nubbin

stump of a tree after the trunk has been felled (Northamptonshire)

palmate

leaves that have lobes arranged like the fingers of a hand, e.g. horse chestnut (forestry)

pankto

knock or shake down apples from the tree...