Music in the Human Experience

Part I: Introducing Music Psychology

Chapter 1. What is Music Psychology?

The Purview of Music Psychology

A Model of Music Psychology

Contributions from Biology

Contributions from Anthropology

Contributions from Philosophy

Contributions from Education

Contributions from Psychology

Contributions from Sociology

Contributions from Physics

Contributions from Music

A Brief History of Music Psychology

An Overview of the Literature in Music Psychology

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 2. Philosophical Issues in Music Psychology

Human and Musical Nature

Biological Differences

Adaptability

Cultural Development

Symbolic Behaviors

Love

Play

Religion

Technology

Aesthetic Sensitivity

Knowledge

The Interface of Music Philosophy and Music Psychology

General Philosophical Approaches

The Science of Beauty

Experimental Aesthetics

The Golden Mean and Mathematical Influences

A Philosophical Paradigm Shift in Music Psychology

Music as a Way of Knowing

Is Music Psychology Encroaching on Music Philosophy's Territory?

Seashore's Involvement with Eugenics

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 3. How We Came to be Musical

Rhythm, a Fundamental Life Process

Natural Soundscapes

Parent-Infant Bonding

The Acquisition of Language

Music as a Way of Knowing

Social Organization

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 4. Music Around the World and Across Time

Time-Line of Early Artistic Behaviors

Prehistoric Cave and Rock Art

Art and Technology

Invariants

Religion

Celebrations

Altered States of Consciousness

Music: A Human Invariant

Emotional expression (Merriam), Regulation of an individual's emotional, cognitive, or physiological state (Clayton)

Aesthetic enjoyment (Merriam)

Entertainment (Merriam), Personal enjoyment, Games (Gregory)

Communication (Merriam, Gregory)

Symbolic representation (Merriam, Clayton), Personal symbol (Gregory)

Physical response (Merriam), Dancing (Clayton)

Enforcing conformity to social norms (Merriam), Mediation between self and other (Clayton)

Validation of social institutions and religious rituals (Merriam), Ceremonies and festivals; Religious music (Gregory)

Contribution to the continuity and stability of culture (Merriam), Ethnic or group identity (Gregory)

Contribution to the integration of society (Merriam)

Lullabies (Gregory)

Work music (Gregory), Coordination of action (Clayton)

Storytelling (Gregory)

Battle (Gregory)

Salesmanship (Gregory)

Healing, trance (Gregory)

Court (Gregory)

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Part II: Perceiving, Understanding and Responding to Music

Chapter 5. Acoustical Foundations of Music

What is Sound?

Important Parameters of Sound

Measuring and Describing Sound and Vibration

Frequency

Amplitude

Waveform (Signal Shape)

Time

How Environment Affects Sound

Transmission and Absorption

Reflection

Diffraction

Refraction

Interference

Tuning Systems

Tuning in Western Music

Non-Western Tuning Systems

Acoustics of the Voice and Musical Instruments

The Voice

Aerophones

Chordophones

Idiophones, Membranophones, and Corpophones

Electrophones

Room Acoustics

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 6. Musical Hearing

The Hearing Mechanism

Outer Ear

Middle Ear

Inner Ear

From Ear to Brain

The Auditory Cortex

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 7. Psychoacoustics and the Perception of Music

The Critical Band

The Perception of Pitch

Pitch Discrimination

Pitch Matching

Pitch Height and Pitch Chroma

Absolute Pitch

Synesthesia

The Perception of Loudness

The Perception of Timbre

The Perception of Duration

Secondary Relationships

Pitch

Loudness

Timbre

Duration

Volume and Density

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 8. Music Cognition

Gestalt Laws of Cognitive Organization

Auditory Scene Analysis

Schemata

The Spotlight of Attention

The Cocktail Party Phenomenon and Auditory Stream Segregation

Musical Memory

Statistical Learning in Music

Expectancy Theory

Tonality

Cognition of Musical Elements

Melody and Harmony

Tonality in Melody Cognition

Melodic Contour

Consonance - Dissonance

Rhythm

Timbre

Cognition of Larger Musical Forms

Cross-Cultural Comparative Research in Music

Music and Language

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 9. Music and the Brain

Brief Introduction to the Brain

Neural Plasticity

Pruning

Critical and Sensitive Periods

Neural Networks

Multisensory Integration

Music in the Brain

Support from Ancillary Disciplines

Support from Indirect Approaches

Special Musicians

Imaging Techniques for Studying Music

Electroencephalography

Electrocorticography

Event-related Potentials

Magnetoencephalography

Positron-Emission Tomography

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Diffusion Tensor Imaging

fNIRS: Functional Near-Infared Spectroscopy

Hyperscanning

Imaging Music Perception and Cognition

Imaging Affective Responses to Music

Imaging Musical Performance

Imaging Music Learning

Predictive Coding of Music (PCM) Model

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 10. Bodily Responses to Music

Physiological Responses to Music

Heart Rate and Pulse Rate

Blood Pressure

Respiration

Skin Conductance Responses

Neurochemical Responses

Skin, Finger, or Body Temperature

Miscellaneous Responses

Physical Responses to Music

Muscular and Motor Responses

Chills and Tears

Facial Gestures

Body Movements

Discussion of Psychophysiological Variables

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 11. Musical Emotions

Introduction to the Study of Emotions

The Role of Expectations in Musical Emotions

Measuring Musical Emotions

Perceived Emotions: The Cognitivist Position

Induced Musical Emotions: The Emotivist Position

A Third Viewpoint: Aesthetic Trinity Theory

Musical Emotions in Everyday Experiences

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Part III: Being Musical

Chapter 12. The Musical Person

Is Musicality Inherited or Acquired?

Genetic Factors in Musicality

The Acquisition of Musical Attributes

Summary of the Inheritance/Acquisition of Musical Attributes

The Relationship of Musical Attributes to Other Human Attributes

The Musical Personality

Religious and Spiritual Aspects

Musical Identity

Musical Preferences

Preferences for Instruments

Preferences for Musical Genres

The Listener

The Music

Situations and Contexts

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 13. Music Performance

Motor Skills

Neuromotor Aspects of Music Making

Motor Aspects of Music Making

Music Performance

The Acquisition of Motor Skills

Audio-Motor and Mirror Neuron Systems

Quantity of Practice

Cognitive Skills

Quality of Practice

Mental Rehearsal

Music Reading

Expressive Skills

Body Movement

Musical Cues for Expressiveness

Musical Creativity

Memory and Creativity

Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Flow

Improvisation

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 14. The Psychology of Music Learning

Psychoanalysis

Behavioral Psychology

Cognitive Approaches

Humanistic Psychology

Gestalt Psychology

Developmental Psychology

Social Psychology

Cognitive Psychology

Taxonomies

Music Intelligence

Music Cognition, Music Learning, and Reflective Thinking

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive Load Theory

Explicit Instruction

Worked Examples

Connectivism

Learning Styles

Music Teaching and Learning

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 15. Music and Health

Music Therapy

Alzheimer's Disease

Autism

Cerebral Palsy

Dyslexia

Parkinson's Disease and Stroke

Premature and Newborn Infants

Psychiatric Disorders

Music Medicine

Aphasia

Stress, Pain, Anxiety, and the Immune System

Performing Arts Medicine

Hearing HealthMM6.4

Vocal Health

Bodily Health

Psychosocial Health

Performance Anxiety

Other Mental Health Issues

Music and Wellbeing

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Chapter 16. Music in Social Contexts

Music in Society

From Birth to Death

From Lowest to Highest Cognitive Functioning

From One Person to Thousands

Reflections of Society in Music

Social Behaviors among Performing Musicians

Social Behaviors among Music Listeners

The Influence of Music on Social Behaviors

Music as a Socializing Agent

The Influence of Music in the Workplace

The Influence of Music on Thought, Attitude, and Social Behavior

Conclusion

Discussion Questions

Epilogue: Ruminations on Music Psychology Research

R1. What is music psychology, and who conducts music psychology research?

R2. Interactions between philosophy and music psychology

R3. The triumvirate of theory, research and practice

R4. Basic and applied research

R5. Quantitative and qualitative research

R6. Formal and informal music experiences

R7. Global perspectives

R8. Toward a cultural music psychology

R9. Replications

R10. A music psychology research collaboratory