Magnetic Sensors for Biomedical Applications

Name: Magnetic Sensors for Biomedical Applications
Brand: Wiley
Price: 103.99 EUR
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Hadi Heidari Vahid Nabaei(Autor*in)

Wiley (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 19. November 2019

256 Seiten

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978-1-119-55220-8 (ISBN)

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Inhalt

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 History of Magnetism Studies and of Its Use in Magnetic Sensors
1.3 Natural and Technical Magnetic Fields and Their Order of Magnitude
1.3.1 Natural Magnetic Fields
1.3.1.1 The Earth´s Magnetic Field
1.3.1.2 Magnetic Fields in Outer Space
1.3.1.3 Biomagnetic Fields
1.3.2 Technical Magnetic Fields
1.3.2.1 Magnetic Fields in the Vicinity of Transformers and Electric Motors
1.3.2.2 Fields of Permanent Magnets
1.4 Magnetic Terms and Units
1.5 Magnetic (Micro) Sensors
1.5.1 Definition of Magnetic Sensors
1.5.2 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials for Sensors
1.5.2.1 Shape of the Hysteresis Loop
1.5.2.2 Saturation Polarization Js and Coercivity Hc
1.5.2.3 Initial Permeability µi
1.5.2.4 Specific Electrical Resistivity ?
1.5.3 Mechanical Properties of Magnetic Materials
1.5.4 Relations Between Sensing Techniques and Sensor Applications
1.5.5 Classification of Magnetic Sensors
1.6 Characteristics of Magnetic Sensors
1.6.1 Characteristics Related to OUT(B)C
1.6.1.1 Magnetosensitivity
1.6.1.2 Nonlinearity
1.6.1.3 Calibration
1.6.1.4 Sensor Excitation
1.6.1.5 Frequency Response
1.6.1.6 Resolution
1.6.1.7 Error
1.6.1.8 Accuracy
1.6.1.9 Hysteresis
1.6.1.10 Repeatability
1.6.2 Characteristics Related to OUT(C)B
1.6.2.1 Noise
1.6.2.2 Offset
1.6.2.3 Cross-Sensitivity and Temperature Error
1.6.2.4 Drift and Creep
1.6.2.5 Response Time
1.6.3 Characteristics Related to the System Description
1.6.3.1 Electrical Excitation
1.6.3.2 Input and Output Impedance
1.6.3.3 Environmental Conditions
1.7 Magnetic Noise
1.7.1 Noise Formalism
1.7.1.1 Fluctuations, Average and Distribution
1.7.1.2 Correlations
1.7.1.3 Frequency Space and Spectral Density
1.7.2 Sensitivity, Signal-to-Noise Ratio, and Detectivity
1.7.3 Different Sources of Noise
1.7.3.1 Separation of Magnetic and Nonmagnetic Noise
1.7.3.2 Frequency-Independent Noise (Thermal or Johnson-Nyquist Noise), Shot Noise
1.7.4 Low Frequency Noise
1.7.4.1 1/f Noise
1.7.4.2 Random Telegraph Noise
1.7.5 High Frequency Noise and Ferromagnetic Resonance
1.7.6 External Noise
1.7.7 Electronics and Noise Measurements
1.7.7.1 Electronics Design
1.7.7.2 Connections Noise
1.7.7.3 Correlation for Preamplification Noise Suppression
References
Chapter 2 Magnetic Sensors Based on Hall Effect
2.1 Overview
2.2 Devices Based on Hall Effect
2.2.1 Geometry
2.2.2 Material
2.3 Horizontal Versus Vertical CMOS Hall Devices
2.4 Current-Mode Versus Voltage-Mode Technique
2.5 Magnetic Sensors Characteristics
2.5.1 Sensitivity
2.5.2 Offset
2.5.2.1 Current Spinning Technique
2.5.3 Noise
2.5.4 Nonlinearity
2.6 State-of-the-art in CMOS Hall Magnetic Sensors
2.6.1 Sensitivity Improvement
2.6.2 Offset Reduction
2.7 Applications of Hall Magnetic Sensors
2.7.1 Biosensors
2.7.2 Contactless Current Sensors
2.7.3 Contactless Angular, Linear, and Joystick Position Sensors
2.7.4 Electronic Compass
2.7.5 Speed and Timing Sensors
2.7.6 Specific Sensors
References
Chapter 3 Magnetoresistive Sensors
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials and Principles of AMR, GMR, and TMR
3.2.1 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance
3.2.1.1 Anisotropic Magnetoresistance Effect and Principles
3.2.1.2 AMR Device Material
3.2.2 Giant Magnetoresistance
3.2.2.1 Giant Magnetoresistance Effect and Principles
3.2.2.2 Mechanism of GMR Effect
3.2.2.3 GMR Effect in Multilayers
3.2.3 Magnetic Tunnel Junctions
3.2.3.1 TMR Structures
3.3 Classes of Magnetoresistive Sensors
3.3.1 General Purpose Magnetometers
3.3.2 MR Sensors in Harsh Environments
3.3.3 Electrical Current Sensing
3.3.3.1 Industrial Electronics Applications (Large to Medium Currents)
3.3.3.2 Differential Currents
3.3.3.3 Switching Regulators
3.3.3.4 Wattmeter
3.3.3.5 IC Current Monitoring
3.3.4 Automotive Applications
3.3.4.1 BLDC Rotor Position Measurement
3.3.4.2 Steering Angle Application
3.3.4.3 Crankshaft Speed and Position Measurement
3.3.4.4 Wheel Speed Measurement for ABS and ESC Systems
3.3.5 Magnetoresistive Elements in Data Storage Applications
3.3.6 Space
3.4 Modeling and Simulations
3.4.1 Finite Element Modeling and Methodology
3.4.2 Finite Element Method
3.4.3 Finite Difference Method
3.4.4 The Boundary Element Method
3.4.5 MR Sensors Simulation and Modeling
3.5 Design and Fabrication Technologies
3.5.1 GMR Devices
3.5.1.1 Deposition Techniques
3.5.1.2 Patterning
3.6 Biomedical Magnetoresistive Sensing Applications
3.6.1 Detection of Bioanalytes
3.6.2 Monitoring of Magnetic Fluids
3.6.3 Biomolecular Recognition Experiments
3.6.4 Ultrasensitive Magnetic Array for Recording of Neuronal Activity (UMANA)
References
Chapter 4 Resonance Magnetometers
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
4.2.1 Classical Model
4.2.1.1 Rotating Frame of Reference
4.2.1.2 Strength of RF Pulses
4.2.2 Basic Design of a NMR Spectrometer
4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Molecular and Atomic Beams
4.2.4 The Sources of Magnetic Fields
4.2.5 NMR Spins Used in Life Science
4.2.6 NMR Relaxation
4.2.6.1 Relaxation Rates
4.2.6.2 Molecular Mechanisms Leading to Relaxation
4.2.7 NMR and Biological Structures
4.2.8 Difficulties in Studying Biological System by NMR
4.2.8.1 Sensitivity
4.2.8.2 Resolution
4.2.8.3 Water Signal
4.2.8.4 Line Widths
4.2.8.5 Quantification
4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 The Obtaining of Spin Images from NMR Induction Signals in Inhomogeneous Field
4.3.3 MRI Instrumentation
4.3.3.1 Magnets and Designs
4.3.3.2 Resistive Electromagnets
4.3.3.3 Permanent Magnets
4.3.3.4 Superconducting
4.3.3.5 Stability, Homogeneity, and Fringe Field
4.3.3.6 Gradient Coils
4.3.3.7 RF Coils
4.3.3.8 RF Decoupling
4.3.4 MRI of Flow
4.3.4.1 Time-of-Flight Techniques
4.4 Electron Spin Resonance
4.4.1 The ESR Experiment
4.4.1.1 Sensitivity
4.4.1.2 Saturation
4.4.2 Operation of an ESR Spectrometer
4.4.3 Optimization of Operating Parameters
4.4.3.1 Microwave Frequency
4.4.3.2 Center Field, Sweep Width, and Field Offset
4.4.3.3 Sweep Time
4.4.3.4 Modulation Frequency
4.4.3.5 Second Harmonic Detection
4.4.3.6 Modulation Amplitude
4.4.3.7 Modulation Phase
4.4.3.8 Signal Gain
4.4.4 Biological Application of the ESR
4.4.4.1 ESR Oximetry
4.4.4.2 Direct Detection of Paramagnetic Species
4.4.4.3 EPR Revealed the Nitrite Reductase Activity of Myoglobin
4.4.4.4 Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Severe Sepsis
4.4.4.5 Spin Trapping ESR
References
Chapter 5 SQUID Sensors
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 History
5.2 SQUID Fundamentals
5.2.1 Josephson Junctions
5.2.2 DC SQUIDs
5.2.2.1 Practical Devices
5.2.3 rf SQUID
5.2.4 Cryogenics and Systems
5.2.5 SQUID Electronics
5.2.5.1 Flux Locked Loop
5.3 SQUID Fabrication
5.4 Lithography and Thin-Film Techniques
5.4.1 Junction Fabrication
5.5 SQUID Applications in Biomagnetism
5.5.1 Biomagnetism
5.5.2 History of SQUID Applications in Biomagnetism
5.5.3 Biomagnetic Fields
5.5.3.1 Gradiometers
5.5.4 Magnetoencephalography
5.5.4.1 MEG Signals
5.5.4.2 Sensor Types for MEG
5.5.4.2.1 Radial and Vector Magnetometers
5.5.5 Magnetocardiography
5.5.5.1 Cardiomagnetic Instrumentation
5.5.6 Magnetoneurography
5.5.6.1 History of Measuring Signal Propagation in Nerves
5.5.6.2 Measurement Technique and Signal Processing
5.5.6.3 Source Modeling for Magnetoneurography
5.5.6.4 Clinical Perspective
References
Chapter 6 Conclusion
6.1 Outlook
6.2 A Conclusion on Galvanomagnetic Sensors
6.2.1 Hall Elements: Hall Voltage Mode Versus Hall Current Mode and Magnetoresistance Mode of Operation
6.2.2 Hall Sensors Versus Ferromagnetic Magnetoresistors
6.2.3 Performance of Integrated Hall Magnetic Sensors
6.2.4 Performance of Ferromagnetic Magnetoresistors
6.2.5 Integrated Hall Sensors Versus AMRs and GMRs
6.3 A Conclusion on NMR and ESR Spectroscopy
6.3.1 Differences Between NMR and ESR
6.3.1.1 Resonant Frequency
6.3.1.2 Relaxation Times
6.3.1.3 Differences Between ESR and NMR Imaging
6.3.1.4 ESR Applications
6.4 Superconductive Quantum Interference Devices
6.4.1 SQUID Fabrication Trend
6.4.2 Trends in SQUID Electronics
6.4.3 Trends in SQUIDs for Nondestructive Evaluation of Materials
References
Index
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