Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology

1 - Cover [Seite 1]
2 - Title Page [Seite 5]
3 - Copyright [Seite 6]
4 - Contents [Seite 7]
5 - List of Contributors [Seite 21]
6 - Preface [Seite 25]
7 - Part I Production of Vanilla - Agricultural Systems and Curing [Seite 27]
7.1 - Chapter 1 Mexican Vanilla Production [Seite 29]
7.1.1 - 1.1 Introduction [Seite 29]
7.1.1.1 - 1.1.1 The Mexican Vanilla Legend [Seite 30]
7.1.2 - 1.2 Cultivation Methods [Seite 31]
7.1.2.1 - 1.2.1 "Traditional"/Acahual [Seite 31]
7.1.2.2 - 1.2.2 Intensive System (Monoculture) [Seite 32]
7.1.2.3 - 1.2.3 Vanilla Cultivation in Existing Orange Groves [Seite 32]
7.1.2.4 - 1.2.4 Shade Houses [Seite 33]
7.1.3 - 1.3 Vanilla Propagation Techniques [Seite 34]
7.1.3.1 - 1.3.1 Preparation and Disinfection of Cuttings [Seite 34]
7.1.3.2 - 1.3.2 Establishing Cuttings - Timing [Seite 34]
7.1.3.3 - 1.3.3 Establishing Cuttings - Planting [Seite 35]
7.1.3.4 - 1.3.4 New Bud Formation and Root Growth [Seite 35]
7.1.4 - 1.4 Irrigation [Seite 35]
7.1.5 - 1.5 Nutrition [Seite 36]
7.1.5.1 - 1.5.1 Mulch [Seite 36]
7.1.5.2 - 1.5.2 Building Compost [Seite 36]
7.1.6 - 1.6 Weed Control [Seite 37]
7.1.7 - 1.7 Shade Management (Pruning of Support Trees) [Seite 37]
7.1.8 - 1.8 Shoot Management - Looping [Seite 38]
7.1.9 - 1.9 Shoot Management - Rooting [Seite 38]
7.1.10 - 1.10 Main Vanilla Insect Pest [Seite 38]
7.1.11 - 1.11 Main Vanilla Diseases [Seite 39]
7.1.11.1 - 1.11.1 Anthracnose [Seite 40]
7.1.11.2 - 1.11.2 Rust [Seite 40]
7.1.11.3 - 1.11.3 Yellowing and Pre-mature Fruit Drop [Seite 40]
7.1.12 - 1.12 Flowering and Pollination [Seite 40]
7.1.12.1 - 1.12.1 Percent of Flowering Plants [Seite 41]
7.1.12.2 - 1.12.2 Natural Pollination [Seite 41]
7.1.12.3 - 1.12.3 Hand Pollination [Seite 41]
7.1.12.4 - 1.12.4 Quantity of Flowers to be Pollinated [Seite 43]
7.1.12.5 - 1.12.5 Fruit Development [Seite 43]
7.1.13 - 1.13 Harvesting [Seite 43]
7.1.13.1 - 1.13.1 Harvesting Practices [Seite 44]
7.1.13.2 - 1.13.2 Preventing Theft [Seite 44]
7.1.14 - 1.14 Green Vanilla Commercialization [Seite 45]
7.1.14.1 - 1.14.1 Prices [Seite 45]
7.1.15 - 1.15 Curing [Seite 45]
7.1.15.1 - 1.15.1 Yield Ratio of Green/Cured Vanilla [Seite 47]
7.1.16 - 1.16 Grading [Seite 47]
7.1.16.1 - 1.16.1 Packing [Seite 48]
7.1.17 - 1.17 Buyers [Seite 49]
7.1.18 - 1.18 Export Volume [Seite 49]
7.1.19 - 1.19 Prices [Seite 49]
7.1.20 - 1.20 Aromatic Profile [Seite 49]
7.1.21 - 1.21 Summary [Seite 50]
7.1.22 - References [Seite 50]
7.2 - Chapter 2 Vanilla Diseases [Seite 53]
7.2.1 - 2.1 Introduction [Seite 53]
7.2.2 - 2.2 Root and Stem Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. Vanillae) [Seite 53]
7.2.2.1 - 2.2.1 Description [Seite 53]
7.2.2.2 - 2.2.2 Damage [Seite 54]
7.2.2.3 - 2.2.3 Control [Seite 54]
7.2.3 - 2.3 Black Rot (Phytophtora Sp.) [Seite 55]
7.2.3.1 - 2.3.1 Description [Seite 55]
7.2.3.2 - 2.3.2 Damage [Seite 55]
7.2.3.3 - 2.3.3 Control [Seite 55]
7.2.4 - 2.4 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum Sp.) [Seite 56]
7.2.4.1 - 2.4.1 Description [Seite 56]
7.2.4.2 - 2.4.2 Damage [Seite 57]
7.2.4.3 - 2.4.3 Control [Seite 57]
7.2.5 - 2.5 Rust (Uromyces Sp.) [Seite 57]
7.2.5.1 - 2.5.1 Description [Seite 57]
7.2.5.2 - 2.5.2 Damage [Seite 58]
7.2.5.3 - 2.5.3 Control [Seite 58]
7.2.6 - 2.6 Rotting of Recently Planted Cuttings [Seite 58]
7.2.6.1 - 2.6.1 Description [Seite 58]
7.2.6.2 - 2.6.2 Damage [Seite 58]
7.2.6.3 - 2.6.3 Control [Seite 59]
7.2.7 - 2.7 Yellowing and Shedding of Young Fruits [Seite 59]
7.2.7.1 - 2.7.1 Description [Seite 59]
7.2.7.2 - 2.7.2 Damage [Seite 60]
7.2.7.3 - 2.7.3 Control [Seite 60]
7.2.8 - 2.8 Viral Diseases [Seite 61]
7.2.8.1 - 2.8.1 Cymbidium Mosaic Virus (CYMV) [Seite 61]
7.2.8.2 - 2.8.2 Vanilla Mosaic Virus (VMV) [Seite 61]
7.2.8.3 - 2.8.3 Vanilla Necrosis Potyvirus (VNPV) [Seite 61]
7.2.8.4 - 2.8.4 Odontoglossum Ringspot Virus (ORSV) [Seite 61]
7.2.8.5 - 2.8.5 Prevention of Viral Diseases [Seite 62]
7.2.9 - 2.9 Damage by Adverse Climatic Factors [Seite 62]
7.2.9.1 - 2.9.1 Natural Pruning of the Apical Buds [Seite 62]
7.2.9.1.1 - 2.9.1.1 Description [Seite 62]
7.2.9.1.2 - 2.9.1.2 Damage [Seite 63]
7.2.9.1.3 - 2.9.1.3 Control [Seite 63]
7.2.10 - 2.10 Damage from Sunburn [Seite 63]
7.2.10.1 - 2.10.1 Description [Seite 63]
7.2.10.2 - 2.10.2 Damage [Seite 63]
7.2.10.3 - 2.10.3 Control [Seite 64]
7.2.11 - 2.11 Hurricanes [Seite 64]
7.2.12 - References [Seite 65]
7.3 - Chapter 3 Vanilla Production in Costa Rica [Seite 67]
7.3.1 - 3.1 Introduction [Seite 67]
7.3.2 - 3.2 History of Vanilla Production in Costa Rica [Seite 68]
7.3.2.1 - 3.2.1 The First Phase of Large-scale Cultivation in Costa Rica [Seite 68]
7.3.2.2 - 3.2.2 The Second Phase of Vanilla Cultivation in Costa Rica [Seite 68]
7.3.2.3 - 3.2.3 The Third Phase [Seite 69]
7.3.3 - 3.3 Vanilla Production - The Traditional System [Seite 71]
7.3.4 - 3.4 Vanilla Production - The Intensive System [Seite 73]
7.3.5 - 3.5 Propagation [Seite 74]
7.3.6 - 3.6 Diseases and Pests [Seite 75]
7.3.7 - 3.7 Vanilla Bean Processing [Seite 76]
7.3.8 - 3.8 Conclusions [Seite 76]
7.3.9 - References [Seite 77]
7.4 - Chapter 4 Atypical Flowering of Vanilla planifolia in the Region of Junín, Peru [Seite 79]
7.4.1 - 4.1 Preparation of the "Mother" Plant (Cuttings) [Seite 80]
7.4.2 - 4.2 Planting Method [Seite 80]
7.4.2.1 - 4.2.1 Weed Control [Seite 81]
7.4.2.2 - 4.2.2 Shoot Management - Looping [Seite 81]
7.4.2.3 - 4.2.3 Shoot Management - Rooting [Seite 81]
7.4.3 - 4.3 Nutrition [Seite 81]
7.4.4 - 4.4 Irrigation [Seite 81]
7.4.5 - 4.5 Pests, Disorders, and Diseases [Seite 83]
7.4.5.1 - 4.5.1 Vanilla Pest [Seite 83]
7.4.5.2 - 4.5.2 Diseases [Seite 83]
7.4.5.3 - 4.5.3 Intense Solar Radiation [Seite 83]
7.4.5.4 - 4.5.4 New Pest [Seite 83]
7.4.5.5 - 4.5.5 New Disease [Seite 84]
7.4.6 - 4.6 Flowering Period [Seite 85]
7.4.6.1 - 4.6.1 Atypical Vanilla Bloom in Peru [Seite 85]
7.4.7 - 4.7 Hand Pollination [Seite 86]
7.4.8 - 4.8 Harvesting [Seite 87]
7.4.9 - 4.9 Vanilla Curing [Seite 88]
7.4.10 - 4.10 Final Comments [Seite 88]
7.4.11 - References [Seite 89]
7.5 - Chapter 5 Vanilla Production in the Context of Culture, Economics, and Ecology of Belize [Seite 91]
7.5.1 - 5.1 Introduction [Seite 91]
7.5.1.1 - 5.1.1 Toledo Agriculture and Socio-demographics Today [Seite 92]
7.5.1.2 - 5.1.2 Maya Mountain Research Farm [Seite 92]
7.5.1.3 - 5.1.3 Agro-ecological Systems [Seite 93]
7.5.1.4 - 5.1.4 Maya Mountain Research Farm Vanilla Cultivation and Introduction Project [Seite 94]
7.5.1.5 - 5.1.5 The Belize Organic Vanilla Association [Seite 95]
7.5.1.6 - 5.1.6 OVA Description and Goals [Seite 95]
7.5.1.7 - 5.1.7 Innovative Vanilla Plantation Establishment Method Pioneered by OVA Members Nicasio and Ophelia Chee Sanchez [Seite 97]
7.5.1.8 - 5.1.8 Wild/Relic Vanilla Stands in Toledo District [Seite 98]
7.5.1.9 - 5.1.9 Possibility of Wild Superior or Useful Genotypes/Species [Seite 100]
7.5.1.10 - 5.1.10 Dr Pesach Lubinsky's Research in Belize and Regarding Vanilla tahitensis [Seite 100]
7.5.1.11 - 5.1.11 Manché Chol [Seite 102]
7.5.2 - 5.2 Discussion [Seite 104]
7.5.3 - Acknowledgments [Seite 105]
7.5.4 - References [Seite 108]
7.6 - Chapter 6 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives in Colombia [Seite 111]
7.6.1 - 6.1 Introduction [Seite 111]
7.6.1.1 - 6.1.1 Low Genetic Diversity in the Vanilla Crop [Seite 111]
7.6.1.2 - 6.1.2 The Importance of Crop Wild Relatives for Agriculture [Seite 111]
7.6.2 - 6.2 Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives [Seite 112]
7.6.2.1 - 6.2.1 Phylogenetic Diversity Within the Genus Vanilla [Seite 112]
7.6.2.2 - 6.2.2 The Secondary Gene Pool for Vanilla [Seite 112]
7.6.2.3 - 6.2.3 Vanilla Diversity in Colombia [Seite 113]
7.6.3 - 6.3 Vanilla Species in the Wild [Seite 115]
7.6.3.1 - 6.3.1 Vanilla Species are Rare in the Wild [Seite 115]
7.6.3.2 - 6.3.2 Reproductive Biology of Vanilla Wild Species [Seite 117]
7.6.3.2.1 - 6.3.2.1 Pollinators [Seite 117]
7.6.3.2.2 - 6.3.2.2 Autogamy [Seite 117]
7.6.3.3 - 6.3.3 Mycorrhizal Interactions [Seite 118]
7.6.3.4 - 6.3.4 Further Interactions with the Microbiome [Seite 119]
7.6.3.5 - 6.3.5 Bioclimatic and Biophysical Adaptations [Seite 120]
7.6.4 - 6.4 Conservation of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives [Seite 121]
7.6.4.1 - 6.4.1 Threats to Conservation [Seite 121]
7.6.4.2 - 6.4.2 Conservation In situ [Seite 122]
7.6.4.3 - 6.4.3 Conservation Ex situ [Seite 122]
7.6.4.4 - 6.4.4 Conservation Ex situ of the Vanilla Microbiome [Seite 124]
7.6.4.5 - 6.4.5 Conservation of Circa situm and Sustainable Use [Seite 124]
7.6.5 - 6.5 Biotechnological Approaches for Vanilla Genetic Resource Conservation and Utilization [Seite 126]
7.6.5.1 - 6.5.1 Characterization and Utilization of Genetic Diversity [Seite 126]
7.6.5.1.1 - 6.5.1.1 DNA Barcoding [Seite 126]
7.6.5.1.2 - 6.5.1.2 Genomic Characterization of Vanilla [Seite 126]
7.6.5.2 - 6.5.2 Application of Microorganisms in Vanilla Cultivation [Seite 127]
7.6.6 - 6.6 An Integrated Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Vanilla Crop Wild Relatives [Seite 127]
7.6.6.1 - 6.6.1 A Colombian National Strategy for Vanilla CWR [Seite 127]
7.6.6.2 - 6.6.2 International Strategy for Conservation of Vanilla CWR [Seite 128]
7.6.7 - References [Seite 128]
7.7 - Chapter 7 The History of Vanilla in Puerto Rico: Diversity, Rise, Fall, and Future Prospects [Seite 137]
7.7.1 - 7.1 Introduction [Seite 137]
7.7.2 - 7.2 Diversity of Wild Vanilla in Puerto Rico [Seite 137]
7.7.2.1 - 7.2.1 Species and Distributions [Seite 137]
7.7.2.2 - 7.2.2 Flowering, Pollination, and Fruit Set [Seite 138]
7.7.3 - 7.3 Rise and Fall: The History of Vanilla Cultivation in Puerto Rico [Seite 138]
7.7.4 - 7.4 Socioeconomic Factors Contributing to the Decline of Vanilla [Seite 140]
7.7.5 - 7.5 Diseases and Decline [Seite 140]
7.7.5.1 - 7.5.1 Fusarium Root and Stem Rot (RSR) [Seite 141]
7.7.5.1.1 - 7.5.1.1 The Pathogen [Seite 141]
7.7.5.1.2 - 7.5.1.2 Symptoms of RSR [Seite 142]
7.7.5.1.3 - 7.5.1.3 Other Fusarium Species [Seite 142]
7.7.5.2 - 7.5.2 Other Diseases and Pests [Seite 142]
7.7.5.3 - 7.5.3 Possible Solutions to RSR [Seite 142]
7.7.5.3.1 - 7.5.3.1 Biological Control [Seite 142]
7.7.5.3.2 - 7.5.3.2 Mycorrhizæ [Seite 143]
7.7.5.3.3 - 7.5.3.3 ChemicalControl [Seite 143]
7.7.6 - 7.6 Future Prospects [Seite 144]
7.7.7 - Acknowledgments [Seite 144]
7.7.8 - References [Seite 144]
7.8 - Chapter 8 Origins and Patterns of Vanilla Cultivation in Tropical America (1500-1900): No Support for an Independent Domestication of Vanilla in South America [Seite 147]
7.8.1 - 8.1 Introduction [Seite 147]
7.8.1.1 - 8.1.1 I. Pre-Cultivation, ca. 1500-1750s [Seite 153]
7.8.1.2 - 8.1.2 II. Papantla Monopoly, 1760s-1840s [Seite 157]
7.8.1.3 - 8.1.3 III. The Vanilla Revolution, 1850s-1900, ". and we've never looked back" [Seite 161]
7.8.2 - 8.2 The Vanilla Necklace [Seite 162]
7.8.3 - 8.3 Summary [Seite 164]
7.8.4 - Acknowledgments [Seite 165]
7.8.5 - References [Seite 165]
7.9 - Chapter 9 Vanilla Production in Australia [Seite 173]
7.9.1 - 9.1 Introduction [Seite 173]
7.9.2 - 9.2 History [Seite 173]
7.9.3 - 9.3 Species [Seite 174]
7.9.4 - 9.4 Climatic Regions of Australia Suitable for Vanilla [Seite 174]
7.9.5 - 9.5 Climatic Conditions in the Vanilla Growing Regions [Seite 175]
7.9.6 - 9.6 Soil and Nutrients [Seite 176]
7.9.7 - 9.7 Watering [Seite 176]
7.9.8 - 9.8 Fertilizing [Seite 176]
7.9.9 - 9.9 Propagation [Seite 176]
7.9.10 - 9.10 Support [Seite 177]
7.9.11 - 9.11 Light/Shade [Seite 178]
7.9.12 - 9.12 Spacing [Seite 179]
7.9.13 - 9.13 Training [Seite 180]
7.9.14 - 9.14 Flowering, Fruit Set, Growth, and Maturation [Seite 180]
7.9.14.1 - 9.14.1 Flowering [Seite 180]
7.9.14.2 - 9.14.2 Fruit Set (Pollination) [Seite 180]
7.9.14.3 - 9.14.3 Growth and Maturation [Seite 181]
7.9.15 - 9.15 Harvesting [Seite 181]
7.9.16 - 9.16 Curing [Seite 181]
7.9.16.1 - 9.16.1 Overview [Seite 181]
7.9.17 - References [Seite 182]
7.10 - Chapter 10 Vanilla in Dutch Greenhouses: A Discovery - From Research to Production [Seite 183]
7.10.1 - 10.1 Introduction [Seite 183]
7.10.1.1 - 10.1.1 Start of Research [Seite 183]
7.10.2 - 10.2 Review of Literature [Seite 183]
7.10.3 - 10.3 Flowering [Seite 185]
7.10.3.1 - 10.3.1 Greenhouse [Seite 186]
7.10.3.2 - 10.3.2 Sustainability [Seite 186]
7.10.4 - 10.4 Varieties [Seite 187]
7.10.5 - 10.5 Propagation [Seite 187]
7.10.5.1 - 10.5.1 Cultivation [Seite 187]
7.10.5.2 - 10.5.2 Growing Systems [Seite 188]
7.10.6 - 10.6 Feasibility and Conclusions [Seite 188]
7.10.7 - References [Seite 189]
7.11 - Chapter 11 Establishing Vanilla Production and a Vanilla Breeding Program in the Southern United States [Seite 191]
7.11.1 - 11.1 Introduction [Seite 191]
7.11.2 - 11.2 Southern Florida Climate [Seite 191]
7.11.2.1 - 11.2.1 Average Temperatures [Seite 192]
7.11.2.2 - 11.2.2 Average Rainfall [Seite 192]
7.11.2.3 - 11.2.3 Average Solar Radiation [Seite 192]
7.11.2.4 - 11.2.4 Major Weather Events [Seite 194]
7.11.3 - 11.3 Native and Naturalized Vanilla Species of South Florida [Seite 195]
7.11.3.1 - 11.3.1 V. dilloniana [Seite 195]
7.11.3.2 - 11.3.2 V. mexicana [Seite 195]
7.11.3.3 - 11.3.3 V. barbellata [Seite 195]
7.11.3.4 - 11.3.4 V. phaeantha [Seite 195]
7.11.3.5 - 11.3.5 V. planifolia [Seite 197]
7.11.4 - 11.4 Establishing Vanilla Production in Southern Florida [Seite 199]
7.11.4.1 - 11.4.1 Shade House Cultivation [Seite 199]
7.11.4.2 - 11.4.2 Tutor Tree Cultivation [Seite 199]
7.11.4.3 - 11.4.3 Substrate Considerations [Seite 200]
7.11.4.4 - 11.4.4 Local Economics and Niche Opportunities [Seite 200]
7.11.5 - 11.5 Vanilla Breeding [Seite 201]
7.11.5.1 - 11.5.1 Establishing a Vanilla Breeding Program in the United States [Seite 201]
7.11.5.2 - 11.5.2 Acquiring Diverse Vanilla Accessions [Seite 202]
7.11.5.3 - 11.5.3 Creating Diversity in Vanilla [Seite 202]
7.11.5.4 - 11.5.4 Identifying the Primary Gene Pool [Seite 203]
7.11.5.5 - 11.5.5 Target Traits [Seite 203]
7.11.5.6 - 11.5.6 A Case for a Publically Available Vanilla Genome [Seite 204]
7.11.6 - 11.6 Conclusions [Seite 204]
7.11.7 - References [Seite 204]
7.12 - Chapter 12 In vitro Propagation of Vanilla [Seite 207]
7.12.1 - 12.1 Methods [Seite 208]
7.12.1.1 - 12.1.1 In vitro Germination [Seite 208]
7.12.1.2 - 12.1.2 Tissue Culture [Seite 208]
7.12.2 - 12.2 Results and Discussion [Seite 209]
7.12.2.1 - 12.2.1 Germination [Seite 209]
7.12.2.2 - 12.2.2 Seed Maturity [Seite 209]
7.12.2.3 - 12.2.3 Time for Germination [Seite 209]
7.12.2.4 - 12.2.4 Scarification [Seite 209]
7.12.2.5 - 12.2.5 Tissue Culture [Seite 209]
7.12.2.6 - 12.2.6 Hybridization [Seite 210]
7.12.2.7 - 12.2.7 In vitro Germplasm Bank [Seite 211]
7.12.2.8 - 12.2.8 Repatriation and Recovery of Mexican Species [Seite 211]
7.12.2.9 - 12.2.9 Method of Ex vitro Adaptation [Seite 212]
7.12.2.10 - 12.2.10 Greenhouse Collection [Seite 212]
7.12.2.11 - 12.2.11 Social Linkage [Seite 212]
7.12.2.12 - 12.2.12 Human Resource Training and International Interaction [Seite 213]
7.12.3 - 12.3 Conclusions [Seite 213]
7.12.4 - References [Seite 214]
7.13 - Chapter 13 Curing of Vanilla [Seite 217]
7.13.1 - 13.1 Introduction [Seite 217]
7.13.2 - 13.2 Botany of the Vanilla Pod [Seite 218]
7.13.2.1 - 13.2.1 Two Fruit Regions [Seite 218]
7.13.2.2 - 13.2.2 Fruit Components [Seite 218]
7.13.2.3 - 13.2.3 Fruit Anatomy [Seite 219]
7.13.2.4 - 13.2.4 Pollination Initiates Ovary and Fruit Development [Seite 219]
7.13.2.5 - 13.2.5 Mature Fruit [Seite 220]
7.13.3 - 13.3 On-the-vine Curing Process in a Vanilla Pod [Seite 221]
7.13.4 - 13.4 Off-the-vine Curing Process of Vanilla Beans [Seite 222]
7.13.4.1 - 13.4.1 Purpose of Curing [Seite 224]
7.13.4.2 - 13.4.2 Traditional Methods of Curing [Seite 225]
7.13.4.2.1 - 13.4.2.1 Killing [Seite 225]
7.13.4.2.2 - 13.4.2.2 Sweating [Seite 226]
7.13.4.2.3 - 13.4.2.3 Drying and Conditioning [Seite 227]
7.13.5 - 13.5 Activity of Hydrolytic Enzymes Occurring in a Curing Vanilla Pod [Seite 228]
7.13.5.1 - 13.5.1 Protease Activity [Seite 228]
7.13.5.2 - 13.5.2 Cell Wall Hydrolyzing Enzymes [Seite 230]
7.13.5.3 - 13.5.3 Glycosyl Hydrolases [Seite 230]
7.13.6 - 13.6 Activity of Oxidative Enzymes Occurring in a Curing Vanilla Pod [Seite 235]
7.13.7 - 13.7 Vanilla Products [Seite 238]
7.13.8 - 13.8 Summary and Conclusions [Seite 238]
7.13.9 - 13.9 Addendum: Commercial Curing Methods of Green Vanilla Bean [Seite 239]
7.13.9.1 - 13.9.1 Traditional Methods [Seite 239]
7.13.9.1.1 - 13.9.1.1 Mexican Curing Method [Seite 239]
7.13.9.1.2 - 13.9.1.2 The Bourbon Curing Method [Seite 240]
7.13.9.1.3 - 13.9.1.3 The Tahitian Curing Method [Seite 240]
7.13.9.1.4 - 13.9.1.4 Other Traditional Curing Methods [Seite 240]
7.13.9.1.5 - 13.9.1.5 Indonesian Curing of Vanilla Bean [Seite 241]
7.13.9.2 - 13.9.2 Refinement of Traditional Curing Methods [Seite 241]
7.13.9.3 - 13.9.3 Novel Curing Methods [Seite 241]
7.13.10 - References [Seite 242]
7.14 - Chapter 14 Fair Trade - The Future of Vanilla? [Seite 249]
7.14.1 - 14.1 The Crisis [Seite 249]
7.14.2 - 14.2 The Farmer [Seite 250]
7.14.3 - 14.3 Fast Forward [Seite 252]
7.14.4 - 14.4 Fair Trade - Background [Seite 252]
7.14.4.1 - 14.4.1 Fair Trade Principles [Seite 253]
7.14.4.2 - 14.4.2 Vanilla and Fair Trade [Seite 254]
7.14.5 - 14.5 Commodity Cycles [Seite 255]
7.14.6 - 14.6 Issues [Seite 256]
7.14.6.1 - 14.6.1 The Price Differential [Seite 256]
7.14.6.2 - 14.6.2 Vanilla Quality [Seite 257]
7.14.6.3 - 14.6.3 Limited Availability [Seite 257]
7.14.6.4 - 14.6.4 Ensuring that Farmers are Paid the FT Price [Seite 258]
7.14.6.5 - 14.6.5 Consumer Acceptance [Seite 258]
7.14.7 - 14.7 Conclusions [Seite 259]
7.14.7.1 - 14.7.1 Update 2017 - Fair Trade Vanilla: Today [Seite 259]
7.14.7.2 - 14.7.2 Update 2017 - Fair Trade Vanilla: The Future [Seite 260]
8 - Part II Authentication and Flavor Analysis [Seite 263]
8.1 - Chapter 15 Quality Control of Vanilla Beans and Extracts [Seite 265]
8.1.1 - 15.1 Introduction [Seite 265]
8.1.2 - 15.2 Quality Control of Vanilla Beans [Seite 265]
8.1.2.1 - 15.2.1 Grading of Vanilla Beans [Seite 266]
8.1.2.1.1 - 15.2.1.1 Vanilla Grading in Mexico [Seite 267]
8.1.2.1.2 - 15.2.1.2 Vanilla Grading in Madagascar [Seite 267]
8.1.2.1.3 - 15.2.1.3 Vanilla Grading in Indonesia [Seite 267]
8.1.2.1.4 - 15.2.1.4 Vanilla Grading in Uganda [Seite 267]
8.1.2.1.5 - 15.2.1.5 Vanilla Grading in Tahiti [Seite 268]
8.1.2.2 - 15.2.2 Aroma of Vanilla Beans [Seite 269]
8.1.2.3 - 15.2.3 Moisture Content of Vanilla Beans [Seite 272]
8.1.2.4 - 15.2.4 Vanillin Content [Seite 272]
8.1.2.4.1 - 15.2.4.1 Vanilla Bean Extraction [Seite 273]
8.1.2.4.2 - 15.2.4.2 Vanillin Determination [Seite 273]
8.1.2.4.3 - 15.2.4.3 Vanillin Determination in Vanilla Extracts and Other Vanilla Products [Seite 274]
8.1.2.4.4 - 15.2.4.4 HPLC Method [Seite 274]
8.1.2.5 - 15.2.5 Microbial Contaminant Limits [Seite 275]
8.1.3 - 15.3 Quality Control of Commercial Vanilla Products [Seite 275]
8.1.3.1 - 15.3.1 Definition of Vanilla Products [Seite 275]
8.1.3.1.1 - 15.3.1.1 Vanilla Extracts [Seite 275]
8.1.3.1.2 - 15.3.1.2 Vanilla Flavoring [Seite 276]
8.1.3.1.3 - 15.3.1.3 Vanilla?Vanillin Extract and Flavoring [Seite 276]
8.1.3.1.4 - 15.3.1.4 Concentrated Vanilla Extract and Flavoring [Seite 276]
8.1.3.1.5 - 15.3.1.5 Vanilla Oleoresin [Seite 276]
8.1.3.1.6 - 15.3.1.6 Vanilla Absolute [Seite 276]
8.1.3.1.7 - 15.3.1.7 Vanilla Powder And Vanilla?Vanillin Powder [Seite 277]
8.1.3.1.8 - 15.3.1.8 Vanilla Tincture for Perfumery [Seite 277]
8.1.3.2 - 15.3.2 Vanilla Extract Quality Parameters [Seite 277]
8.1.3.2.1 - 15.3.2.1 Appearance: Color and Clarity [Seite 277]
8.1.3.2.2 - 15.3.2.2 Flavor [Seite 277]
8.1.3.2.3 - 15.3.2.3 Soluble Solids Content [Seite 278]
8.1.3.2.4 - 15.3.2.4 Vanillin Content [Seite 278]
8.1.3.2.5 - 15.3.2.5 Organic Acids - (Wichmann) Lead Number [Seite 279]
8.1.3.2.6 - 15.3.2.6 Resin Content [Seite 279]
8.1.3.2.7 - 15.3.2.7 Microbial Limits [Seite 279]
8.1.4 - 15.4 Determination of Authenticity of Vanilla Extracts [Seite 280]
8.1.4.1 - 15.4.1 Guidelines for Determination of Authenticity [Seite 280]
8.1.4.1.1 - 15.4.1.1 Evaluation of the Ratios Between Specific Components [Seite 281]
8.1.4.1.2 - 15.4.1.2 Isotope?ratios Mass Spectrometry [Seite 281]
8.1.4.1.3 - 15.4.1.3 Site?specific Quantitative Deuterium NmR [Seite 281]
8.1.4.2 - 15.4.2 Other Methods to Determine Authenticity [Seite 282]
8.1.4.2.1 - 15.4.2.1 Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis (SIRA) [Seite 282]
8.1.4.2.2 - 15.4.2.2 SNIF?NMR Technique [Seite 284]
8.1.5 - 15.5 Summary [Seite 285]
8.1.6 - Acknowledgment [Seite 285]
8.1.7 - References [Seite 285]
8.2 - Chapter 16 Flavor, Quality, and Authentication [Seite 287]
8.2.1 - 16.1 Introduction [Seite 287]
8.2.2 - 16.2 Vanilla Flavor Analyses [Seite 288]
8.2.3 - 16.3 Biochemistry and Genetic Research on Vanilla [Seite 292]
8.2.4 - 16.4 Vanilla Quality and Authentication Analyses [Seite 293]
8.2.4.1 - 16.4.1 Liquid Chromatographic Methods [Seite 294]
8.2.4.2 - 16.4.2 Isotopic Techniques [Seite 298]
8.2.4.3 - 16.4.3 Radiometric and Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis [Seite 298]
8.2.4.4 - 16.4.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) [Seite 300]
8.2.4.5 - 16.4.5 Isotopic Techniques Summary [Seite 300]
8.2.4.6 - 16.4.6 Integrated and Miscellaneous Methodologies [Seite 301]
8.2.5 - 16.5 Conclusion [Seite 303]
8.2.6 - References [Seite 305]
8.3 - Chapter 17 Volatile Compounds in Vanilla [Seite 311]
8.3.1 - 17.1 Lexicon of Vanilla Aroma/Flavor Descriptors [Seite 311]
8.3.2 - References [Seite 371]
8.4 - Chapter 18 A Comprehensive Study of Composition and Evaluation of Vanilla Extracts in US Retail Stores [Seite 375]
8.4.1 - 18.1 History [Seite 375]
8.4.2 - 18.2 Uses of Vanilla in the Industry [Seite 375]
8.4.2.1 - 18.2.1 Household Products [Seite 376]
8.4.2.2 - 18.2.2 Dairy Products [Seite 376]
8.4.2.3 - 18.2.3 Ice Cream (Frozen Dairy Products) [Seite 376]
8.4.2.4 - 18.2.4 Yogurt [Seite 376]
8.4.2.5 - 18.2.5 Puddings [Seite 377]
8.4.2.6 - 18.2.6 Chocolate [Seite 377]
8.4.2.7 - 18.2.7 Confections [Seite 377]
8.4.2.8 - 18.2.8 Baked Goods [Seite 377]
8.4.2.9 - 18.2.9 Beverages [Seite 377]
8.4.2.10 - 18.2.10 Pet Products [Seite 378]
8.4.2.11 - 18.2.11 Pharmaceutical Products [Seite 378]
8.4.2.12 - 18.2.12 Oral Care [Seite 378]
8.4.2.13 - 18.2.13 Perfume [Seite 378]
8.4.2.14 - 18.2.14 Toys [Seite 378]
8.4.3 - 18.3 Major US Vanilla Companies [Seite 379]
8.4.4 - 18.4 Introduction to the Study [Seite 379]
8.4.5 - 18.5 Materials and Methods [Seite 379]
8.4.6 - 18.6 Results and Discussion [Seite 380]
8.4.6.1 - 18.6.1 Labeling of Retail Vanilla Extracts [Seite 380]
8.4.6.2 - 18.6.2 Flavor Components in the Retail Vanilla Extracts [Seite 385]
8.4.6.3 - 18.6.3 Total Phenol Content of the Retail Vanilla Extracts [Seite 389]
8.4.7 - 18.7 Conclusion and Recommendation [Seite 389]
8.4.8 - References [Seite 391]
8.5 - Chapter 19 Vanilla in Perfumery and Beverage Flavors [Seite 393]
8.5.1 - 19.1 Earliest Recorded Use of Vanilla [Seite 393]
8.5.2 - Reference [Seite 399]
9 - Part III Biology of Vanilla [Seite 401]
9.1 - Chapter 20 Vanilla Phylogeny and Classification [Seite 403]
9.1.1 - 20.1 Vanilloideae Among Orchids [Seite 407]
9.1.2 - 20.2 Diversity Within Vanilloideae [Seite 407]
9.1.2.1 - 20.2.1 Tribe Pogonieae [Seite 408]
9.1.2.2 - 20.2.2 Tribe Vanilleae [Seite 409]
9.1.3 - 20.3 Origins and Age of Vanilloideae [Seite 410]
9.1.4 - 20.4 Diversity Within Vanilla [Seite 411]
9.1.5 - 20.5 Systematic Conclusions and Implications [Seite 414]
9.1.6 - References [Seite 415]
9.2 - Chapter 21 Molecular Analysis of a Vanilla Hybrid Cultivated in Costa Rica [Seite 417]
9.2.1 - 21.1 Methods [Seite 418]
9.2.1.1 - 21.1.1 PCR Amplification, Cloning, and DNA Sequencing [Seite 418]
9.2.1.2 - 21.1.2 Phylogenetic Analysis [Seite 419]
9.2.1.3 - 21.1.3 Preparation of Vanilla Extracts [Seite 419]
9.2.2 - 21.2 Results and Discussion [Seite 419]
9.2.3 - References [Seite 425]
9.3 - Chapter 22 Root Cause: Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla and Prospects for Biological Control of Root Rots [Seite 429]
9.3.1 - 22.1 Introduction [Seite 429]
9.3.1.1 - 22.1.1 Orchids and Their Mycorrhizæ [Seite 429]
9.3.1.2 - 22.1.2 The Fungi: Rhizoctonia and Related Taxa [Seite 430]
9.3.2 - 22.2 Phylogenetic Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla [Seite 432]
9.3.2.1 - 22.2.1 Methods [Seite 432]
9.3.2.2 - 22.2.2 Diversity of Mycorrhizal Fungi [Seite 434]
9.3.2.3 - 22.2.3 Fusarium [Seite 435]
9.3.2.4 - 22.2.4 Distribution of Mycorrhizæ and Colonization of Roots [Seite 435]
9.3.2.5 - 22.2.5 Roots in Soil vs. Roots on Bark [Seite 436]
9.3.2.6 - 22.2.6 Differences in Mycorrhizæ Among Agrosystems [Seite 436]
9.3.2.7 - 22.2.7 Limitations of Methods and Sources of Bias [Seite 436]
9.3.3 - 22.3 Mycorrhizal Fungi of Vanilla Stimulate Seed Germination and Seedling Growth [Seite 437]
9.3.3.1 - 22.3.1 Seedling Germination Experiments [Seite 437]
9.3.3.2 - 22.3.2 Seedling Growth and Survival Experiments [Seite 437]
9.3.4 - 22.4 Can Mycorrhizal Fungi Protect Vanilla Plants from Pathogens? [Seite 440]
9.3.4.1 - 22.4.1 Biocontrol of Plant Diseases Using Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi [Seite 440]
9.3.4.2 - 22.4.2 Biocontrol of Plant Diseases Using Ceratobasidium [Seite 441]
9.3.4.3 - 22.4.3 Are Rhizoctonia Strains Used for Biocontrol also Potential Pathogens? [Seite 442]
9.3.4.4 - 22.4.4 Fusarium Species as Potential Biocontrol Agents to Protect Vanilla from Fusarium oxysporum Root Rots [Seite 443]
9.3.5 - 22.5 Conclusions [Seite 443]
9.3.6 - References [Seite 444]
9.4 - Chapter 23 Enzymes Characterized From Vanilla [Seite 449]
9.4.1 - 23.1 L-Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyse (Pal) and Cinnamate-4-Hydroxylase (C4h) [Seite 449]
9.4.2 - 23.2 Chain-shortening Enzymes [Seite 450]
9.4.3 - 23.3 4-Coumaric Acid 3-Hydroxylase (C3H) [Seite 453]
9.4.4 - 23.4 O-Methyltransferase (OMT) [Seite 454]
9.4.5 - 23.5 Benzyl Alcohol Dehydrogenase (Bad) [Seite 454]
9.4.6 - 23.6 Glycosyltransferases (GTS) [Seite 455]
9.4.7 - 23.7 ??Glycosyl Hydrolases and Curing [Seite 456]
9.4.8 - References [Seite 457]
9.5 - Chapter 24 Vanillin Biosynthesis - Still Not as Simple as it Seems? [Seite 461]
9.5.1 - 24.1 Introduction [Seite 461]
9.5.2 - 24.2 Multiple Pathways to Vanillin Based on Biochemistry? [Seite 464]
9.5.3 - 24.3 Elucidation of Vanillin Biosynthesis via Molecular Biology? [Seite 466]
9.5.4 - References [Seite 468]
9.6 - Chapter 25 Vanilla planifolia - The Source of the Unexpected Discovery of a New Lignin [Seite 473]
9.6.1 - 25.1 Introduction [Seite 473]
9.6.2 - 25.2 Identification of C-lignin in V. planifolia [Seite 475]
9.6.3 - 25.3 Identification of Genes Potentially Involved in Lignin and Vanillin Biosynthesis [Seite 477]
9.6.4 - 25.4 C-Lignin Biosynthesis in Other Plants [Seite 478]
9.6.5 - 25.5 Commercial Value of C-Lignin as a Novel Natural Polymer [Seite 479]
9.6.6 - References [Seite 480]
10 - Part IV Biotechnological Production of Vanillin [Seite 483]
10.1 - Chapter 26 Biotechnology of Vanillin: Vanillin from Microbial Sources [Seite 485]
10.1.1 - 26.1 Introduction [Seite 485]
10.1.1.1 - 26.1.1 Why? [Seite 485]
10.1.1.2 - 26.1.2 How? [Seite 486]
10.1.2 - 26.2 Substrates [Seite 486]
10.1.2.1 - 26.2.1 Ferulic Acid (4-Hydroxy 3-Methoxy Cinnamic Acid) [Seite 486]
10.1.2.1.1 - 26.2.1.1 Non???oxidative Deacetylation (CoA?dependent) [Seite 488]
10.1.2.1.2 - 26.2.1.2 ??Oxidative Deacetylation (CoA?Dependent) [Seite 489]
10.1.2.1.3 - 26.2.1.3 Non?Oxidative Decarboxylation [Seite 490]
10.1.2.1.4 - 26.2.1.4 CoA?Independent Deacetylation [Seite 491]
10.1.2.1.5 - 26.2.1.5 Side?Chain Reductive Pathway [Seite 492]
10.1.2.2 - 26.2.2 Eugenol and Isoeugenol [Seite 493]
10.1.2.3 - 26.2.3 Lignin [Seite 494]
10.1.2.4 - 26.2.4 Sugars [Seite 495]
10.1.3 - 26.3 Microorganisms [Seite 496]
10.1.3.1 - 26.3.1 Bacteria [Seite 496]
10.1.3.1.1 - 26.3.1.1 Pseudomonas [Seite 496]
10.1.3.1.2 - 26.3.1.2 Streptomyces [Seite 496]
10.1.3.1.3 - 26.3.1.3 Bacillus [Seite 497]
10.1.3.1.4 - 26.3.1.4 Corynebacterium [Seite 498]
10.1.3.1.5 - 26.3.1.5 Escherichia coli [Seite 498]
10.1.3.1.6 - 26.3.1.6 Amycolatopsis sp. [Seite 499]
10.1.3.1.7 - 26.3.1.7 Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) [Seite 499]
10.1.3.1.8 - 26.3.1.8 Clostridium [Seite 500]
10.1.3.2 - 26.3.2 Fungi and Yeasts [Seite 500]
10.1.4 - 26.4 Processes [Seite 503]
10.1.4.1 - 26.4.1 Direct Bioconversion Process [Seite 503]
10.1.4.2 - 26.4.2 Bi-Phasic Fermentation [Seite 506]
10.1.4.3 - 26.4.3 Mixed Culture Fermentation [Seite 506]
10.1.4.4 - 26.4.4 Continuous Fermentation with Immobilized Cells [Seite 507]
10.1.4.5 - 26.4.5 Enzymes [Seite 507]
10.1.4.6 - 26.4.6 Cofactors [Seite 508]
10.1.5 - 26.5 Downstream Processing and Recovery [Seite 508]
10.1.6 - 26.6 Conclusions [Seite 508]
10.1.7 - References [Seite 509]
11 - Index [Seite 515]
12 - EULA [Seite 527]