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Marc Emmelmann, Researcher, Faculty of Computer science and Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Berlin, Germany As a member of the Telecommunication and Networks Group (TKN), his current research focuses on wireless networks with special interest on supporting mobility for high-velocity vehicles. Special interest has evolved in MAC-layer supported seamless handover with QoS guarantees. He has written numerous journal articles and has contributed to a book chapter.
Bernd Bochow, Senior Scientist, Fraunhofer Institute for Open Communication Systems (FOKUS), Germany Mr Bochow has been contributing to numerous national and joint European research and development projects (ITEA, EURESCOM, ACTS, IST) as well as performing contractual work for national customers both as a researcher and as a project manager. His recent research interests are in the area of vehicular ad-hoc networking and cognitive radio. He is also participating in the standardization of car-2-car communication systems. He has written several journal articles and contributed to a book chapter.
C. Christopher Kellum, Project Engineer, General Motors Europe Global Technology Engineering, Germany Mr Kellum worked five years at General Motors Research & Development in Warren, Michigan during which time he developed collision warning and avoidance applications using enhanced digital map data and vehicle-to-vehicle communication. Additionally, he has contributed to the Society of Automotive Engineers DSRC Data Dictionary standards. Since 2006, he has worked in Europe on vehicle-to-vehicle communication and the Car2Car Consortium as well as object detection sensors for active safety. He has written a number of journal articles.
List of Contributors xiii
Preface xv
1 Commercial and Public Use Applications 1 Dr. Hariharan Krishnan, Dr. Fan Bai and Dr. Gavin Holland
1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.1 Motivation 3
1.1.2 Contributions and benefits 3
1.1.3 Chapter organization 4
1.2 V2XApplications from the User Benefits Perspective 4
1.2.1 Application value 5
1.3 Application Characteristics and Network Attributes 8
1.3.1 Application characteristics 8
1.3.2 Network attributes 10
1.4 Application Classification and Categorization 12
1.4.1 Characterization based on application characteristics 12
1.4.2 Characterization based on network attributes 15
1.4.3 Application classification . . . . 18
1.5 Market Perspectives and Challenges for Deployment 21
1.5.1 Fleet penetration 21
1.5.2 System rollout options 21
1.5.3 Market penetration analysis 23
1.5.4 System rollout 25
1.5.5 Role of infrastructure 25
1.6 Summary and Conclusions 26
References 27
2 Governmental and Military Applications 29 Anthony Maida
2.1 Introduction 29
2.2 Vehicular Networks for First Responders 30
2.2.1 Public safety communications 30
2.2.2 Vehicular communications 31
2.3 The Need for Public Safety Vehicular Networks 33
2.4 State of Vehicular Network Technology 35
2.4.1 Incident Area Networks 35
2.4.2 Jurisdictional Area Networks 36
2.4.3 Extended Area Networks 38
2.5 Vehicular Networks for Military Use 40
2.6 Conclusions 42
References 42
3 Communication Systems for Car-2-X Networks 45 Daniel D. Stancil, Fan Bai and Lin Cheng
3.1 Overview of theV2XEnvironment 46
3.1.1 Vehicle-to-Infrastructure 46
3.1.2 Vehicle-to-Vehicle 46
3.1.3 Antenna requirements 47
3.2 V2XChannel Models 48
3.2.1 Deterministic models 48
3.2.2 Geometry-based statistical models 48
3.2.3 Multi-tap models 50
3.3 V2XChannelProperties 50
3.3.1 Empirical measurement platform 51
3.3.2 Large-scale path loss 51
3.3.3 Fading statistics 53
3.3.4 Coherence time and Doppler spectrum 53
3.3.5 Coherence bandwidth and delay spread profile 56
3.4 Performance of 802.11p in the V2X Channel 58
3.4.1 Impact of channel properties on OFDM 59
3.4.2 Potential equalization enhancement schemes 61
3.5 Vehicular Ad hoc Network Multichannel Operation 61
3.5.1 Multichannel MAC (IEEE 1609.4) 62
3.5.2 Performance evaluation of the IEEE 1609.4 multichannel MAC 63
3.5.3 Other solutions for multichannel operations 65
3.6 Vehicular Ad hoc Network Single-hop Broadcast and its Reliability Enhancement Schemes 66
3.6.1 Reliability analysis of DSRC single-hop broadcast scheme 66
3.6.2 Reliability analysis of DSRC-based VSC applications 68
3.6.3 Reliability enhancement schemes for single-hop broadcast scheme 69
3.7 Vehicular Ad hoc Network Multi-hop Information Dissemination Protocol Design 71
3.7.1 Multi-hop broadcast protocols in dense VANETs 71
3.7.2 Multi-hop broadcast protocols in sparse VANETs 73
3.8 Mobile IP Solution in VANETs 75
3.8.1 Mobile IP solution 75
3.8.2 Mobile IP solution tailored to VANET scenarios 76
3.9 Future Research Directions and Challenges 77
3.9.1 Physical layer perspective 77
3.9.2 Networking perspective 77
References 78
4 Communication Systems for Railway Applications 83 Benoît Bouchez and Luc de Coen
4.1 Evolution of Embedded Computers and Communication Networks in Railway Applications 83
4.2 Train Integration in a Global Communication Framework 84
4.3 Communication Classes and Related Communication Requirements 85
4.3.1 Real-time data 85
4.3.2 Non-real-time message data 86
4.3.3 Streaming data 88
4.4 Expected Services from a Railway Communication System and the Related Requirements 88
4.4.1 Automatic Train Control 88
4.4.2 Passenger Information System 89
4.4.3 Video 90
4.4.4 Maintenance 91
4.4.5 On-board Internet access 91
4.5 Qualitative and Quantitative Approach for Dimensioning Wireless Links 92
4.5.1 Environmental influence 92
4.5.2 Global propagation model 92
4.5.3 Train motion influence 93
4.5.4 Regulation and licensing 93
4.6 Existing Wireless Systems Applicable to Railway Communication Systems 93
4.6.1 Magnetic coupling technology 93
4.6.2 WLAN/WMAN technologies 94
4.6.3 Cellular technologies 96
4.6.4 Satellite link technologies 99
4.7 Networks for On-board Communication and Coupling with the Wayside 99
4.7.1 Multifunction Vehicle Bus 99
4.7.2 Wire Train Bus 100
4.7.3 Ethernet 100
4.7.4 Coupling on-board communication with wayside communication 100
4.8 Integration of Existing Technologies for Future Train Integration in a Global Communication Framework 101
4.8.1 European Rail Traffic Management System 101
4.8.2 MODURBAN Communication System 102
4.9 Conclusion 103
References 103
5 Security and Privacy Mechanisms for Vehicular Networks 105 Panos Papadimitratos
5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Threats 107
5.3 Security Requirements 108
5.4 Secure VC Architecture Basic Elements 109
5.4.1 Authorities 109
5.4.2 Node identification 110
5.4.3 Trusted components 110
5.4.4 Secure communication 111
5.5 Secure and Privacy-enhancing Vehicular Communication 111
5.5.1 Basic security 111
5.5.2 Secure neighbor discovery 112
5.5.3 Secure position-based routing 113
5.5.4 Additional privacy-enhancing mechanisms 113
5.5.5 Reducing the cost of security and privacy enhancing mechanisms 115
5.6 Revocation 116
5.7 Data Trustworthiness 119
5.7.1 Securing location information 119
5.7.2 Message trustworthiness 121
5.8 Towards Deployment of Security and PET for VC 122
5.8.1 Revisiting basic design choices 122
5.8.2 Future challenges 124
5.9 Conclusions 125
References 125
6 Security and Dependability in Train Control Systems 129 Mark Hartong, Rajni Goel and Duminda Wijesekera
6.1 Introduction 130
6.2 Traditional Train Control and Methods of Rail Operation 130
6.2.1 Verbal authority and mandatory directives 131
6.2.2 Signal indications 131
6.3 Limitations of Current Train Control Technologies 132
6.4 Positive Train Control 132
6.4.1 Functions 133
6.4.2 Architectures 134
6.4.3 US communication-based systems 135
6.5 System Security 138
6.5.1 The security threat 138
6.5.2 Attacks 139
6.5.3 Required security attributes 141
6.5.4 Analysis of requirements 142
6.6 Supplementary Requirements 144
6.6.1 Performance management 144
6.6.2 Configuration management 145
6.6.3 Accounting, fault, and security management 145
6.7 Summary 146
References 146
7 Automotive Standardization of Vehicle Networks 149 Tom Schaffnit
7.1 General Concepts 149
7.1.1 Vehicle-to-Vehicle communications 150
7.1.2 Vehicle-to-Infrastructure communications 150
7.2 Interoperability 151
7.2.1 Regional requirements and differences 152
7.2.2 Necessity of standards 153
7.2.3 Insufficiency of standards 154
7.3 Wireless Protocols and Standardization Activities 154
7.3.1 OSI seven-layer protocol model 154
7.3.2 Standards activities relative to protocol layers 155
7.3.3 Cooperation required among different standards 156
7.4 Regional Standards Development Progress 157
7.4.1 North America 157
7.4.2 Europe 160
7.4.3 Japan 162
7.5 Global Standardization 163
7.5.1 Global standards development organizations and mechanisms 164
7.5.2 Allowances for regional differences 167
References 168
8 Standardization of Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication 171 Karine Gosse, David Bateman, Christophe Janneteau, Mohamed Kamoun, Mounir Kellil, Pierre Roux, Alexis Olivereau, Jean-Noël Patillon, Alexandru Petrescu, and Sheng Yang
8.1 Introduction 172
8.2 Overview of Standards and Consortia Providing Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Communication Solutions 173
8.2.1 Spectrum 173
8.2.2 Standards 174
8.3 Radio Access Standards for V2I Communications 178
8.3.1 IEEE 802.11p 178
8.3.2 Applicability of generic wide area radio access standards to Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)communications . . 181
8.4 Networking Standards forV2I Communications 185
8.4.1 Non-IP networking technologies for critical messaging 185
8.4.2 IP-based vehicular networking 186
8.5 Summary 198
References 198
9 Simulating Cooperative Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Systems: A Multi-Aspect Assessment Tool Suite 203 Gerdien Klunder, Isabel Wilmink and Bart van Arem
9.1 Introduction on Design and Evaluation of Cooperative Systems 204
9.2 Design Problems for Cooperative Systems 204
9.3 SUMMITS Tool Suite and Multi-Aspect Assessment 205
9.3.1 Multi-aspect assessment 205
9.3.2 The SUMMITS Tool Suite 206
9.3.3 Some practical aspects of the approach 207
9.4 Integrated Full-Range Speed Assistant 208
9.4.1 Modes and functions 208
9.4.2 Scenarios 209
9.4.3 IRSA controllers 209
9.5 System Robustness - Simulations with a Multi-Agent Real-Time Simulator 212
9.5.1 Aims of the simulation 212
9.5.2 Implementation of IRSA in MARS 213
9.5.3 Evaluation of robustness of IRSA CACC controllers 215
9.5.4 Conclusions on the simulations with MARS 217
9.6 Traffic Flow Impacts-Simulations in the ITS Modeller 218
9.6.1 Aims of the simulations 218
9.6.2 Implementation of IRSA in the ITS modeller 219
9.6.3 Results for the 'approaching a traffic jam' scenario 221
9.6.4 Results for the 'approaching a reduced speed limit zone' scenario 222
9.6.5 Results for the 'leaving the head of a queue' scenario 223
9.6.6 Conclusions on the ITS modeller simulation results 224
9.7 Conclusions 224
References 225
10 System Design and Proof-of-Concept Implementation of Seamless Handover Support for Communication-Based Train Control 227 Marc Emmelmann
10.1 Introduction 228
10.2 Fast Handover for CBTC using Wi-Fi 229
10.2.1 Requirements of Communications-Based Train Control for fast handover support 229
10.2.2 Taxonomy of handover phases 230
10.2.3 IEEE 802.11 fast handover support 231
10.2.4 Challenges of CBTC for Wi-Fi-based fast handover support 239
10.3 System Concept and Design 239
10.3.1 System architecture 240
10.3.2 MAC scheme 241
10.3.3 Predictive fast handover 242
10.4 Implementation 243
10.4.1 Methodology 243
10.4.2 Proof-of-concept demonstrator 244
10.5 Performance Evaluation 245
10.5.1 Metric design 245
10.5.2 Empirical evaluation 247
10.6 Conclusion 253
References . . . . 253
11 New Technological Paradigms 257 Bernd Bochow
11.1 Evolution and Convergence of Vehicular Networks 258
11.2 Future Challenges 259
11.2.1 Handling network growth 259
11.2.2 Managing resources in adhoc scenarios 260
11.2.3 Enabling interworking, integration and convergence 261
11.2.4 Providing integrated on-board and vicinity communications 261
11.3 New Paradigms 262
11.3.1 RF LoS obstruction due to other vehicles in close vicinity 263
11.3.2 Increased demand for accuracy of positioning and time synchronization 263
11.3.3 Optimization of message RTT 263
11.3.4 Gaining and distributing knowledge on topology and resource availability in temporal, spatial and spectral dimensions 264
11.3.5 Efficient collaboration and cooperation in resource utilization 264
11.4 Outlook: the Role of Vehicular Networks in the Future Internet 265
References 267
Further Reading 271
Acronyms and Abbreviations 275
Subject Index 285
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