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FRANK M. DUNNIVANT, PHD, is currently a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Whitman College. He has worked for several labs including the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, and the Swiss Federal Institute for Water and Waste Water Pollution (EAWAG). He has extensive experience with practical applications, research, and writing on environmental engineering and analytical science topics.
ELLIOT ANDERS holds a degree in Environmental Chemistry, works as a software engineer with a commitment to social justice and improving the environment, and is a cofounder of Educational Solutions, LLC.
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Acronyms xv
Glossary xix
About the Companion Website xxiii
To the Instructor xxv
To the Student xxvii
To the Environmental Professional xxix
How to Use the Book with Fate® and Associated Software xxxi
Instructor/Student Resources xxxiii
Part I Introduction 1
1 Sources and Types of Pollutants, Why We Need Modeling, and the Need to Study Historical Pollution Events 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Need for Modeling of Pollutants in Environmental Media 4
1.3 Pollution versus Contamination; Pollutant versus Contaminant 4
1.4 Pollution Classifications 5
1.5 Sources of Pollution 5
1.6 Historic Examples of Where Fate and Transport Modeling Are Useful 10
1.7 Environmental Laws 21
Concepts 22
Exercises 22
Bibliography 22
Part II Chemistry of Fate and Transport Modeling 25
2 Basic Chemical Processes in Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling 27
2.1 The Liquid Medium: Water and the Water Cycle 27
2.2 Unique Properties of Water 28
2.3 Concentration Units 32
2.4 Chemical Aspects of Environmental Systems 32
2.5 Reactions and Equilibrium 44
2.6 Complexation 53
2.7 Equilibrium Sorption Phenomena 54
2.8 Transformation/Degradation Reactions 63
2.9 Fugacity Concepts and Modeling 67
2.10 Summary 68
Concepts 68
Exercises 68
References 69
3 Quantitative Aspects of Chemistry Toward Modeling 71
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Calculation of the Free Metal Ion Concentration in Natural Waters 71
3.3 Methods for Determining Kd and Kp 83
3.4 Kinetics of the Sorption Process 85
3.5 Sorption Isotherms 87
3.6 Kinetics of Transformation Reactions 89
3.7 Numerical Chemical Speciation Models 90
3.8 Putting It All Together: Where Chemistry Enters Into the Modeling Effort 91
3.9 Basic Approach to Fate and Transport Modeling 93
Exercises 95
Bibliography 99
Part III Modeling 101
4 An Overview of Pollutant Fate and Transport Modeling 103
4.1 Modeling Approaches 103
4.2 Quality of Modeling Results 109
4.3 What Do You Do with Your Modeling Results? 109
Bibliography 110
5 Fate and Transport Concepts for Lake Systems 111
Case Study 1: Lake Onondaga 111
Case Study 2: Lake Erie, A More Positive Example 112
Chapter Overview 112
5.1 Introduction 112
5.2 Types of Lakes and Lake-forming Events 113
5.3 Input Sources 117
5.4 Stratification of Lake Systems 118
5.5 Environmental Sampling of Lake Systems 120
5.6 Important Factors in the Modeling of Lakes: Conceptual Model Development 122
5.7 Two Basic Mathematical Models for Lakes (Derivation by John Brooksbank in the Chapter Appendix) 126
5.8 Sensitivity Analysis 130
5.9 Limitations of Our Models 131
5.10 Remediation 131
5.11 Numerical Modeling Approaches for Large Lakes 133
5.12 Useful Algebraic Model Formulation 133
5.A Derivation of the two basic forms of fate and transport models for lake system: step (continuous) model and pulse (instantaneous) (derivations by John Brooksbank) 134
Concepts 136
Exercises 136
Bibliography 139
6 Fate and Transport of Pollutants in Rivers and Streams 141
Case Study: The Rhine River 141
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Examples of Rivers and Volumetric Flows of Water 142
6.3 Input Sources 143
6.4 Sampling of Surface Waters 143
6.5 Important Factors in the Modeling of Streams: Conceptualization of Terms 144
6.6 Mathematical Development of Transport Models (Derivations by John Brooksbank, Here and in Chapter Appendix) 147
6.7 Sensitivity Analysis 151
6.8 Limitations of Our Models 151
6.9 Remediation of Polluted Stream Systems 152
Suggested Papers for Class Discussion 153
Concepts 153
Exercises 153
Spreadsheet Exercise 156
6.A Model Derivatives for River and Stream Systems (Derivations by John Brooksbank) 156
Bibliography 161
7 Dissolved Oxygen Sag Curves in Streams: The Streeter-Phelps Equation 163
Case Study: Any Stream, Anywhere in the World 163
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Basic Input Sources (Wastewater Flow Rates and BOD Levels) 166
7.3 Sampling of Wastewater 168
7.4 Mass Balance-Based Development of the Basic Streeter-Phelps Model 168
7.5 Sensitivity Analysis 175
7.6 Limitations of Our Basic Model and More Elaborate Models 175
7.7 Remediation 175
7.8 One Last Note on Estuaries 177
Suggested Reading for Discussion 178
Concepts 178
Exercises 178
Spreadsheet Exercise 182
7.A Derivation of the Streeter-Phelps (DO Sag Curve) Equation (By John Brooksbank 182
Bibliography 184
8 Fate and Transport Concepts for Groundwater Systems 187
Case Study: The Test Area North Deep Well Injection Site at the Idaho National Environmental and Engineering Laboratory (INEEL) 187
8.1 Introduction 187
8.2 Input Sources 188
8.3 Monitoring Wells 189
8.4 Groundwater Sampling Equipment 195
8.5 Chemistry Experiments Used to Support Modeling Efforts 195
8.6 Direction of Water Flow (The Three-Point Problem) 200
8.7 Physical Parameters Important in Pollutant Fate and Transport 202
8.8 Derivation of Mathematical Models for Groundwater 208
8.9 Sensitivity Analysis 213
8.10 Limitations of Our Models 213
8.11 Remediation 214
8.12 Numerical Models Used by Professionals 216
Suggested Papers for Class Discussion 216
Concepts 216
Exercises 216
Spreadsheet Exercise 219
Bibliography 219
9 Fate and Transport Concepts Atmospheric Systems 221
Case Study: The Union Carbide-Bhopal Accident 221
9.1 Introduction 222
9.2 Input Sources 222
9.3 Atmospheric Sampling Equipment and Efforts 222
9.4 Important Factors in the Modeling of Atmospheric Pollution: Conceptual Model Development 224
9.5 Mathematical Development of Model 227
9.6 Sensitivity Analysis 233
9.7 Limitations of Our Model 234
9.8 Remediation 235
9.9 Models Used by Professionals 235
Concepts 235
Suggested Reading for Class Discussions 235
Exercises 235
Plume (step or continuous) Input Problems 236
Puff (Pulse or Instantaneous) Pollutant Inputs 236
Spreadsheet Exercise 237
Bibliography 237
10 Regulatory Environmental Modeling Practices and Software 239Raymond C. Whittemore
10.1 Introduction 239
10.2 Generic Model Types 239
10.3 Model Availability 240
10.4 Atmospheric Quality Models 240
10.5 Surface Water Models 242
10.6 Large-Scale Watershed Models 246
10.7 Subsurface or Groundwater Models 248
10.8 Modeling of Toxic Substances 250
10.9 Human Health Risk Assessment 251
10.10 Other Useful Regulatory Models 251
Exercises 251
Bibliography 252
Part IV Toxicology and Risk Assessment 255
11 Toxicology, Risk Assessment, Cost-Benefit Analysis, and Life Cycle Assessment 257
11.1 Introduction 257
11.2 Toxicology 257
11.3 Risk Assessment 258
11.4 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) 274
11.5 Benefit-Cost Analysis 276
11.6 Summary 276
Concepts 276
Exercises 277
Bibliography 280
Part V Environmental Legislation in the United States 281
12 US Environmental Laws 283Frank Dunnivant, Lance DeMuth, Savanna Ferguson, Rose Kormanyos, Loren Sackett, and Jill Schulte
12.1 Environmental Movements in the United States 283
12.2 The History of the Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) 284
12.3 Major US Environmental Laws 285
12.4 EPA's Record 300
12.5 Environmental Permitting and Compliance 302
12.6 International Agreements/Treaties Involving the United States 302
12.7 Summary 305
Exercises 305
Disclaimer 305
Bibliography 305
13 Environmental Policy in the European Union 307Steven Woolston and Aisha Kimbrough
13.1 Introduction to the European Union 307
13.2 The Environment and the European Union 307
13.3 The Early Stages of the EU's Environmental Efforts 307
13.4 Existing Environmental Legislation 308
13.5 Waste Management Legislation 308
13.6 Water Legislation 309
13.7 Air Quality Legislation 309
13.8 Environmental Disasters 310
Bibliography 310
14 Environmental Laws in China 311Zeyu Liu (¿¿¿) and Yi Xu (¿¿)
14.1 Environmental Law and Policy in the People's Republic of China 311
14.2 Brief Introduction to China 311
14.3 Economy and the Environment 311
14.4 History of Environmental Law and Policy 312
14.5 Existing Environmental Law and Policy 314
14.6 Challenges and the Future of Environmental Governance 314
14.7 Can China Take on the Leading Role in the Global Environmental Governance? 315
Bibliography 316
Part VI World Class Pollutants 319
15 World Class Pollutants 321Frank Dunnivant and Emily Welborn
15.1 Mercury 321
15.2 Lead 323
15.3 PCBs 325
15.4 DDT 326
15.5 Endocrine Disruptors 328
15.6 Plastics 330
15.7 Carbon Dioxide and Climate Change 331
Bibliography 332
Part VII Supporting Laboratory Experiments 335
16 Laboratory Experiments 337
16.1 Introduction 337
16.2 Keeping a Legally Defensible Laboratory Notebook 337
16.3 Quarter- and Semester-Long Experiments 338
16.4 Pollutant Fate and Transport Experiments for the Last Two Dispersion Experiments 338
16.5 The Measurement of Dispersion in a Simulated River System 355
16.6 The Measurement of Dispersion and Sorption in a Simulated Groundwater System 358
Bibliography 365
Index 367
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