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Frederic Debeaufort is Professor of Food and Packaging Sciences and Technology at the University of Burgundy, France. He is also a researcher at the Food and Wine Physical-Chemistry Lab and President of the national scientific council of ACTIA (Ministry of Agriculture).
Kata Galic is Professor of Food Packaging Sciences at the University of Zagreb, Croatia. She is also a member of the EFFoST, CROFoST and the Royal Society of Chemistry.
Mia Kurek is Assistant Professor in Food Packaging Sciences at the University of Zagreb, Croatia.
Nasreddine Benbettaieb is Assistant Professor in Food and Packaging Physical-Chemistry at the University of Burgundy, France. He is also a researcher at the Food and Wine Physical-Chemistry Lab.
Mario Scetar is Assistant Professor in Food Packaging Sciences at the University of Zagreb, Croatia. He is also the President of the Croatian Society of Food Technologists, Biotechnologists and Nutritionists (CROFoST).
Preface xiii Frédéric Debeaufort, Kata Galic, Mia Kurek, Nasreddine Benbettaieb and Mario scetar
Acknowledgements xv Frédéric Debeaufort, Kata Galic, Mia Kurek, Nasreddine Benbettaieb and Mario scetar
Introduction to Food Packaging xvii Frédéric Debeaufort And Kata Galic
Chapter 1. Wood-based Packaging 1 Frédéric Debeaufort
1.1. Introduction 1
1.2. Wood as a raw material for food packaging: characteristics, requirements, limitations and regulations 2
1.3. Pallets 6
1.4. Boxes, crates and trays 9
1.5. Barrels and casks 9
1.6. Wood package-food interactions 13
1.7. References 15
Chapter 2. Papers and Boards 19 Frédéric Debeaufort
2.1. Introduction 19
2.2. Pulp and cellulose extraction for paper-based materials 21
2.2.1. Mechanical and thermomechanical pulping 23
2.2.2. Chemi-mechanical pulping 23
2.2.3. Chemical pulping 24
2.2.4. Recycled paper pulping and non-wood pulping 25
2.2.5. Pulp bleaching 25
2.2.6. Pulp properties and uses 26
2.3. Paper production and properties 27
2.3.1. Paper sheet processing 27
2.3.2. Types of paper for packaging 31
2.3.3. Paper-based bags, sacks and spiral wound containers 32
2.4. Paperboards and containerboards 34
2.4.1. Paperboard processing 34
2.4.2. Paperboard types and properties 35
2.5. Corrugated paperboard 40
2.5.1. Corrugated board history and economy 40
2.5.2. Corrugated board processing and characteristics 40
2.5.3. Corrugated board sustainability 43
2.6. Regulations and safety concerns of papers and boards 43
2.7. References 44
Chapter 3. Glass Packaging 49 Frédéric Debeaufort
3.1. Introduction 49
3.2. Composition and properties of glass 50
3.2.1. Glass composition 50
3.2.2. Chemical and functional properties of glass 53
3.3. Glass manufacturing 56
3.3.1. Collection of raw materials and mixing 57
3.3.2. Melting in furnace 57
3.3.3. Shaping/molding 58
3.3.4. Annealing and surface treatments 62
3.4. Bottle design and terminology 63
3.5. Lifecycle, recycling and safety concerns 67
3.6. References 70
Chapter 4. Metal Packaging 75 Frédéric Debeaufort
4.1. Introduction 75
4.2. Metal packaging types 76
4.3. Composition and properties: metals and alloys 78
4.3.1. Steel-based (iron-based) and tin-plated steel materials 79
4.3.2. Tin-free steel or ECCS (electrolytic chromium oxide-coated steel) materials 83
4.3.3. Stainless steel for food packaging materials 83
4.3.4. Aluminum-based materials 84
4.4. Can manufacturing 86
4.4.1. Three-piece can-making process 86
4.4.2. Two-piece can manufacture 88
4.4.3. Can end making and seaming onto can bodies 91
4.5. Can surface treatments 95
4.6. Food-can interactions 100
4.7. References 101
Chapter 5. Plastics 105 Mario scetar
5.1. Introduction 105
5.2. Plastic materials and processes 106
5.3. Plastic films for packaging 112
5.3.1. Plastic classes 112
5.3.2. Plastic packaging shapes 114
5.4. Properties of plastic packaging 116
5.4.1. General properties of plastic 117
5.4.2. Barrier properties of plastic 118
5.4.3. Food packaging interactions 121
5.5. Plastic packaging innovation 124
5.6. Plastic waste management 125
5.7. Legislation for food contact materials 126
5.8. References 127
Chapter 6. Multilayer Packaging Materials 131 Mario scetar
6.1. Introduction 131
6.2. Multilayer materials and their production 132
6.2.1. Adhesive lamination 133
6.2.2. Extrusion and coextrusion lamination 134
6.2.3. Thermal lamination 135
6.2.4. Metallized films 136
6.3. Properties of laminates 137
6.3.1. Barrier properties 137
6.3.2. Interaction between packaging material and food 140
6.4. Packaging application of laminates 140
6.5. Environmental and waste management issues 142
6.6. References 143
Chapter 7. Bio-based Materials 145 Mia Kurek And Nasreddine Benbettaieb
7.1. Introduction 145
7.2. Definitions 147
7.2.1. Bio-based plastics 147
7.2.2. Biodegradable plastics 148
7.2.3. Compostable materials 151
7.3. Classification of bio-based materials 151
7.3.1. Polymers directly extracted from biomass 151
7.3.2. Polymers produced by chemical synthesis from biomass monomers 164
7.3.3. Polymers produced directly by natural or genetically modified organisms 169
7.3.4. Petrochemical-based polymers 172
7.4. Industrial relevance and future trends 175
7.5. List of abbreviations 176
7.6. References 177
Chapter 8. Active and Intelligent Packaging 183 Nasreddine Benbettaieb
8.1. Introduction 183
8.2. Active packaging 185
8.2.1. Scavenger systems 187
8.2.2. Releaser/emitter systems 196
8.2.3. Other active packaging systems 201
8.3. Intelligent packaging: concepts and commercial applications 202
8.3.1. Indicators 204
8.3.2. Sensors 211
8.3.3. Data carriers 212
8.3.4. Providing more convenience 214
8.3.5. Controlling theft, counterfeiting and tampering 216
8.4. Consumer safety and related regulations 217
8.5. References 218
Chapter 9. Packaging Caps And Closures 223 Kata Galic
9.1. Introduction 223
9.2. Closure types 224
9.2.1. Closures to retain internal pressure 224
9.2.2. Closures to contain and protect contents 225
9.2.3. Closures to maintain a vacuum inside the container 228
9.2.4. Closures to secure contents inside a container 229
9.3. Specialized types of closures 229
9.3.1. Dispensing and metering closures 229
9.3.2. Tamper-evident closures 230
9.3.3. Child-resistant closures 231
9.3.4. Easy-open closures 231
9.4. References 233
Chapter 10. Auxiliary Materials 235 Mia Kurek and Mario scetar
10.1. Introduction 235
10.2. Coatings 236
10.2.1. Coatings on metals 236
10.2.2. Coatings on plastics 239
10.2.3. Coatings on paper and glass 240
10.2.4. Surface treatments and coating application 241
10.3. Adhesives 245
10.4. Printing inks 249
10.5. Interaction between packaging and contents 251
10.5.1. Permeation 251
10.5.2. Migration 252
10.6. Future trends and challenges 254
10.7. References 254
Chapter 11. Food Packaging Methods 257 Kata Galic
11.1. Introduction 257
11.2. Packaging operations 259
11.2.1. Food wrapping 259
11.2.2. Food bagging 261
11.2.3. Form-fill-seal packaging 261
11.2.4. Blister packaging 262
11.3. Packaging for thermally processed food 263
11.3.1. Canning 263
11.3.2. Retortable pouches 266
11.3.3. Aseptic packaging 268
11.3.4. Ohmic heating 270
11.3.5. Infrared treated pre-packaged food 271
11.3.6. Radiofrequency treated pre-packaged food 273
11.3.7. Microwavable packaging 274
11.4. Packaging for non-thermally processed food 276
11.4.1. High hydrostatic pressure 276
11.4.2. Pulsed electric fields 277
11.4.3. Irradiation 279
11.4.4. Pulsed light technology 280
11.5. Packaging with atmosphere modification 281
11.5.1. Vacuum and vacuum skin packaging 282
11.5.2. Inert atmosphere packaging 283
11.5.3. Controlled atmosphere packaging 284
11.5.4. Modified atmosphere packaging 284
11.6. List of abbreviations 290
11.7. References 291
Chapter 12. Packaging Marking and Labeling 301 Mia Kurek
12.1. Introduction 301
12.2. Labeling 302
12.3. Standards 302
12.3.1. Food labeling requirements 303
12.3.2. Food packaging symbols 309
12.4. Material and label production 311
12.4.1. Self-adhesive (pressure-sensitive) labels 312
12.4.2. In-mold labeling 313
12.4.3. Sleeves 313
12.4.4. "Smart" and digital labeling 314
12.5. References 315
Chapter 13. Food Packaging Selection 317 Kata Galic
13.1. Introduction 317
13.2. Food packaging material selection 318
13.2.1. Fresh and chilled food packaging 319
13.2.2. Shelf stable and frozen food packaging 329
13.2.3. Dried food packaging 332
13.2.4. Beverages packaging 333
13.2.5. Snack and confectionary food packaging 336
13.3. List of abbreviations 339
13.4. References 340
List of Authors 347
Index 349
Frédéric Debeaufort1 and Kata Galic 2
1 Institute of Technology, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
2 Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Packaging is one of the aspects that is part of the daily life of modern companies. It provides many services in support of the product and the various users, whether the packaging company, logisticians, users or consumers. Often disparaged when it is emptied of its contents, the packaging, apparently banal to quote some, is the fruit of human intelligence at the service of all.
Today, packaging is the result of the use of various modern technologies over long development processes (computer-aided design - CAD, 2D/3D digital printing, connected packaging, sustainable packaging and industry 4.0). The packaging world generates sophisticated jobs that require training and learning and schools need to meet this challenge. The packaging industry is "ahead" of many other industries; we are talking about industry 4.0 with high technicality in packaging, its mechanization and its level of robotization, without forgetting the numerous patents filed. Indeed, since 2012, patents filed by the packaging industry (all sectors combined) have represented 2.7% of total patents, that is, twice as much as the economic activity of the sector (1.3%) (CNE 2020). The baby boom and easier access to products, especially food, thanks to the development of large stores (retailing, supermarkets), have been a source of innovation in terms of packaging materials and machines, in order to mass supply products at the right time and at the lowest cost. The arrival of plastic in the 1960s allowed innovation in the processes for implementing packaging associated with functionalities. The arrival of mass distribution in the 1970s accelerated innovations serving the consumer. The integration of use by the user or the consumer is a source of creativity for the benefit of the population, in particular, for the elderly, if it is easy to open, for example. Finally, the regulations, the quest for traceability and the fight against counterfeiting have made it possible to generate packaging and processes for branding and identification purposes.
The global packaging market consumption in 2020 covers five main materials: paper and boards (31.06%), plastic (flexible 24.85% and rigid 22.28%), metal (12.64%), glass (6.81%) and others (2.35%), with approximately 70% of all packaging used in the food industry (WPO 2008; ALL4PACK 2016). In 2015, the global packaging industry value was US$839 billion and is predicted to reach US$998 billion in 2020 (ALL4PACK 2016). The global packaging machine market should grow at an average annual rate of 4.9% in the coming years, reaching a value of US$42 billion in 2018, US$48 billion in 2020 and an estimated 55 billion in 2025 according to Technavio (2020).
The definition of "packaging" in EU Directive 94/62/EC (European Commission 1994) is presented as "all products made of any materials of any nature to be used for the containment, protection, handling, delivery and presentation of goods, from raw materials to processed goods, from the producer to the user or the consumer".
The International Packaging Institute (in the Glossary of Packaging Terms, 1988) defined packaging as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance (Robertson 2013). Other definitions of packaging include a system that coordinates the preparation of goods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and end use, a way to ensure its delivery to the consumer in a safe and sound condition. This also includes a techno-commercial function in order to optimize the costs of delivery while maximizing the profits (Coles 2011).
The Glossary of the International Trade Centre (ITC 2020), in the packaging sector, gives the following definitions:
Thus, packaging serves as a material-handling tool (containing the desired amount of food within a single container or gathering several identical units into aggregates), a processing aid (e.g. sterilization of food products in metal cans) and protection for items from damage and waste, which is an important marketing tool.
Packaging can be distinguished in regard to its "levels" (Figure I.1). A primary package (e.g. metal can, glass bottle and plastic wrap or pouch) is the most important as it is in direct contact with the product, providing the major protective barrier. The primary package is the one that the consumer usually purchases in supermarkets. A secondary package contains different numbers of primary packages, for example, a plastic pouch containing unidose packed sweets or biscuits. A tertiary package, also known as the transport package, is made up of a number of secondary packages that facilitate national and international trade. In other words, it represents the exact number of secondary packages put on a pallet to fill the space most economically. A quaternary package facilitates the handling of tertiary packages and is usually a large metal container (up to 40 m in length) that can accommodate many pallets during transport by ships or trains. When required, the conditions inside the container (temperature, humidity, gas composition and light) can be regulated. Traceability is at the forefront of food safety and is particularly important for perishables such as fresh fruits and vegetables, chilled meats and frozen foods. This also presents the source of innovation of real-time loggers aimed at delivering real-time distribution chain insights from any location (monitoring in-transit shipments, temperature, security and location details).
Figure I.1. Levels of packaging
Packaging, as an essential element of the product-packaging pair, fulfills various functions, such as the provision of a product to users and consumers, its conservation, its protection and its transport, whether this product is consumed by households, artisans or manufacturers.
Throughout history, packaging has enabled humans to free themselves from both time and space:
Four main functions of packaging are thus emphasized: containment, protection, convenience and communication (Figure I.2), which are interrelated, and must all be considered in the package development process (Robertson 2013).
Figure I.2. Packaging functions
Containment
In order to perform its basic function successfully, the package must contain the product before it is transferred from one place to another. In case this task is not fulfilled (e.g. due to damage of the package), this can result in content spillages, economic losses and, in some cases, serious damage to the environment.
Protection
Product protection is the most important function of packaging. The package must protect the product from any external condition leading to damage (mechanical, poor environmental conditions, contamination and infestation) during handling, distribution and storage.
Thus, packaging is designed to ensure that the product reaches the consumer in good condition, through its entire journey from the manufacturer to the ultimate consumer.
Where required, packaging can also provide additional product protection. This is achieved through cushioning using different materials (such as sheets of corrugated paperboard, shredded paper, foam polystyrene or wrappings).
Food safety and quality is ensured through tamper-proof packaging. Special child-resistant closures, on items such as household chemicals (cleaning liquids, detergents, etc.) and pharmaceuticals, are developed to protect this vulnerable population. It is evident that packaging technology has made a huge contribution to improving food science and food safety and the reduction of food spoilage, as well as food waste.
Communication
The expression "a package must protect what it sells and sell what it...
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