Snakes: Morphology, Function, and Ecology

Name: Snakes: Morphology, Function, and Ecology
Brand: Nova
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Penning David(Herausgeber*in)

Nova (Verlag)

Erschienen am 21. Juli 2023

629 Seiten

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Inhalt

Intro
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
The Evolution of the Form and Function of the Head of Snakes
Abstract
Introduction
Evolution: Fossils and the First Steps in the Evolution of the Ophidian Skull
The Debate on Ancestral Snake Ecology
Summary
Macroevolution of the Skull and Molecular Phylogenetics
Placement of Snakes within Squamata
Relationships between Serpentes
Ecological Origins and the Evolution of Macrophagy
Core Scolecophidia and Anomalepididae
Amerophidia
Uropeltoidea
Bolyeriidae, Pythonoidea, and Booidea
Caenophidia: Acrochordidae
Caenophidia: Colubroides
Functional Morphology and Biomechanics of the Head
The Evolution of Head Shape in Relation to Locomotion and the Physical Properties of the Medium
Sensory System, Head Shape, and Endocranium
Visual System
Chemical Senses
Balance
Mechanical Senses
Summary
Secondary Roles of the Head
Defensive Roles
Predatory Roles
Unnecessary Forms of Beauty
Conclusion and Future Research
Author Contributions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 2
The Interaction of Tooth Shape and Strike Kinematics in the Role of Prey Capture
Abstract
Introduction
Morphology, Performance, Behavior
Snake Feeding
Vertebrate Teeth
Snake Teeth and Fangs
This Chapter
Materials and Methods
Species and Husbandry
Kinematics
Morphology
Integration
Results
Kinematics
Morphology
Integration
Discussion
Strike Kinematics
Tooth Morphology
Integration
Ontogeny and Ecology
Conclusion
Major Findings
Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 3
How Constriction Works in Snakes: History and Modern Advances
Abstract
Introduction
Defining Force-Based Predation Mechanisms
Simple Seizing
Pinioning
Hairpin Loop
Constriction
Defining a New Type of Constriction
Snake Musculature Used During Constriction
The Mechanisms Underlying How Constriction Works on Prey
Scaling of Constriction Performance
Prey Type and Constriction Performance
Conclusion: A Renewed Phylogenetic Approach to Constriction
Summary of Literature Review
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4
Antipredator Behavior in Snakes
Abstract
Introduction
Cloacal Scent Gland Discharge
Neck and Body Flattening
Tail Vibration and Rattling
Death Feigning
Nuchal Gland-Related Behavior
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5
The Integrative Biology of Snake Coloration
Abstract
Introduction
Mechanisms of Color Production in Snakes
Cellular Determinants of Color
Development of Color and Pattern
Genetics and Genomics of Snake Coloration
Functions of Snake Coloration and Patterning
Non-Signaling Functions
Color Pattern as a Signal or Cue
Snakes as Signalers
Static Versus Dynamic Signals
Honest Versus Dishonest Signals
Snakes as Receivers
Frontiers: Functions of Near-IR and UV Coloration
Evolutionary Forces That Drive Evolution of Snake Coloration
Measuring Selection
Macroevolutionary Patterns of Snake Coloration
The (Macroevolutionary) Problem of Characterizing a Phenotype
Non-Phylogenetically Controlled Tests
Phylogenetically-Explicit Tests
Frontiers: High-Throughput Color Phenotyping and Complex Trait Modeling
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 6
Adaptations to Aquatic Life in Snakes
Abstract
Introduction
Aquatic Species Distribution
Freshwater Snakes
Brackish Snakes
Marine Snakes
Notable Ecological Transitions
Freshwater to Marine: Mangroves as Transitional Habitats
Marine to Freshwater: Land-Locked Snakes
Continuum of Water-Associated Behaviors
Using Feeding Behavior to Structure the Semi-Aquatic to Aquatic Continuum
Dietary Breadth in the Aquatic Environment
Piscivory
Oophagy
Durophagy
The Constraints of the Aquatic Environment on Feeding Behaviors
Forward Strikes
Sit-and-Wait Foraging Underwater
Trapping Multiple Smaller Prey with the Body
Chin and Neck Pinning
Lingual Luring
Caudal Luring
"Death Rolls" or Longitudinal-Axis Spinning
Constriction
Loop and Pull
Envenomation
Sensory Cues
Mechanoreceptors
Phototactic Tails
Morphological/Anatomical Specializations
Low Profile Heads
Microcephaly and Macrocephaly in Sea Snakes
Valved Nostrils
Posterior Sublingual Salt Glands/Cephalic Glands
Body Shape
Shape of the Tail
Thick Skin
Scale Shape and Size
Ridged Teeth
Heart Position
Compact Clutches
Submergence Versus Diving
Submergence as an Inactive Behavior
Submergence in Large Snakes
Diving as an Active Behavior
The Dive Response
Physiological Adaptations to Diving
Cutaneous Respiration
Elevated Blood-Oxygen Stores
Shallow Versus Deep Divers
Marine Deep Divers
Genus: Aipysurus
Marine Shallow Divers
Genus: Acrochordus
Sexual Differences
Nocturnal Diving Behavior
Changes in Diving Due to Upwelling Events
Substrate Crawling in Natricine Snakes
Measures of Diving Performance in Snakes
Diving in the Lab Versus in the Field
Conservation and Aquatic Snakes
Submergence and Diving in a Warming World
Aquatic Invasions
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7
Drinking Behavior and Water Balance in Insular Cottonmouth Snakes
Abstract
Introduction
Insular Ecology of Cottonmouth Snakes on Seahorse Key
Water Sources, Drinking Behavior, and Hygric Physiology of Insular Cottonmouths
Hygric Ecology and Drinking Behavior
Dehydration and Drinking
Skin Properties and Water Losses
Estimates of Water Budget for Insular Cottonmouths
Conclusion and Perspectives
References
Chapter 8
Ambush Hunting in Snakes: Behavior, Function, and Diversity
Abstract
Introduction
Behavioral Stages of Ambush Hunting
Selecting an Ambush Site: Cues Indicative of Prey Encounter
Selecting an Ambush Site: Microhabitat Structure
Sitting and Waiting
Prey Encounters
Functional Morphology and Biomechanics of Ambush Strikes
Targeting
Strike Kinematics
Why Do Ambush Hunters Miss?
Trade-Off between Strike Accuracy and Velocity?
Sensory Systems and Striking
Skull Functional Morphology and Musculature
Axial Function during Striking in Viperids
Ambush Hunting in Snakes: Diversity
Ambush Hunting in Viperids
Ambush Hunting in Boids and Pythonids
Diversity of Microhabitats Used by Snakes for Ambush Hunting
Terrestrial Ambush Hunting: Crotalus horridus
Arboreal Ambush Hunting: Gloydius shedaoensis
Sand-Dwelling Ambush Hunting in Viperids
Semi-Aquatic Ambush Hunting: Agkistrodon piscivorus
Conclusion
References
Chapter 9
Snake Foraging Ecology and Digestive Physiology: Integrative Biology and Evolving Paradigms
Abstract
Introduction
The Foraging Syndrome Hypothesis for Snakes
A Critique of the Foraging Syndrome Hypothesis for Snakes
The Adaptive Digestion Hypothesis
A Critique of the Adaptive Digestion Hypothesis
A New Interpretation: The Supersizing Hypothesis
Research Needed
Identifying Additional Morphological Traits That Correlate with Foraging Mode
Is Chemical Crypsis Common in Ambush Foraging Species?
Comparative Rates of Weight Loss in Ambush and Active Foragers
Do Ambush and Active Foragers Have Different Bauplans?
Proportions of Empty Stomachs
Does Foraging Mode Impact Performance of Thermoregulation?
The Impact of Fasting on SMR and SDA
pH of Postabsorptive Reptile Stomachs
Allometry of SDA with Meal Size
The Source of the Triglyceride Tide
Differences in Mitochondrial Aerobic Metabolism Due to Foraging Mode
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10
Evolutionary and Clinical Implications of the Snake Venom System: Dynamic Diversification
Abstract
Morphology and Evolution of the Snake Venom Apparatus
What Is the Origin of the Snake Venom System?
How Has the Snake Venom Glands Diversified Since the Single Point of Evolution?
How Has Venom Delivering Dentition Varied in the Advanced Snakes?
The Origin and Evolution of Venom Proteins
Diet as a Driver of Venom Evolution
Streamlining of Venom towards Preferred Prey Items
Snake Venom Evolution beyond Prey Specificity
Natural Resistance to Snake Venom Toxins
Toxin Scavenging Molecule Resistance
Snake Venom Metalloproteinase Inhibitors (SVMPIs)
Phospholipase A2 Inhibitors (PLA2I)
Target Modification Resistance
Three-Finger Toxin Resistance
Steric Hindrance
Charged Residue Substitutions
Conformational Site Changes
Snake Venom C-Type Lectin Resistance
Venom Variation Impact upon Antivenom Efficacy
Therapeutic Potential of Snake Venom Toxins
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 11
Stress Ecology in Snakes
Abstract
Introduction
Tools and Metrics for Assessing Stress in Snakes
Glucocorticoids: Corticosterone (CORT)
Elevated Glucocorticoids Do Not Necessarily Mean Snakes Are Stressed
Glucocorticoid Actions in Snakes
Immune Metrics
Overview of Immunity and Stress in Snakes
Quantifying Immune Function
Blood Films and Cell Ratios
Antimicrobial Capacity or Bacterial Killing Assay
Lysis and Agglutination Assay
Oxidative Stress
Inflammation
Wound Healing
Microbiome
Molecular Markers
Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species
Lipid Peroxidation
Heat Shock Proteins
Telomeres
Mitochondrial Function
Gene Expression
Energetics, Metabolism, and Hydration
Changes in Glucose Metabolism and Availability
Metabolic Rate
Hydration
Morphometrics
Condition Indices
Fluctuating Asymmetry
Behavior
Exploratory Behavior
Activity Area
Reproductive Behavior
Defensive Behavior
Snake Stressors
Capture
Captivity
Climate Change
Heat Stress
Hydric Stress
Urbanization
Invasive Species and Invasion
Shelter
Prey
Intraspecific Interactions
Disease
Fungi (Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola)
Hemogregarine Parasites (Phylum Ampicoplexa)
Ectoparasites (Class Arachnida: Ticks, Mites, and Chiggers)
Helminths (Cestodes, Trematodes, Nematodes, and Pentastomes)
Bacteria, Viruses, and Stress
The Need for Experiments Linking Disease and Stress
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12
The Evolutionary Background of Ophidiophobia and Ophidiophilia
Abstract
Introduction
Evolutionary Background of Snake-Human Interaction
The Co-Evolution of Snakes and Humans (and Their Ancestors)
Were Snakes Our Predators?
First Evolutionary Studies
Snakebite Data and What Primate Models Suggest
Why Are Snakes Detected Quickly?
What If the Defensive System Is Overly Sensitive?
Fear of Snakes (Ophidiophobia)
Prevalence of Snake Phobia
Theories of Fear Acquisition
The Role of Disgust in Snake Phobia
The Role of Experience and Other Protective Factors against Snake Phobia
Therapeutic Interventions
Ophidiophilia and the Beauty of Snakes
The Snake as a Potent Symbol in Mythology, Religion, and Culture
Affinity to Snakes
Beauty of Large Constrictors: Pythons and Boas
Beauty of Kingsnakes
Implications for Snake Protection
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 13
Medically Important Snakes: A Synthesis of Their Reported Identities and the Need to Study Their Ecology to Better Understand Human-Venomous Snake Conflict
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Reported Snake Taxa Implicated in Snakebites
Estimating the Most Medically Important Snake Genera
Studies of Medically Important Genera by Research Field
Statistical Analyses
Results
Reported Identity by Family
Reported Identity by Genus
Estimating the Most Medically Important Snake Genera
Studies of Medically Important Genera by Research Field
Discussion
Limits and Biases of the Study
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
Appendix 1. The References of the Studies We Used to Examine the Reported Identity of the Snake Implicated in Snakebites
References
Chapter 14
Global Perspectives on Human-Snake Interactions
Abstract
Introduction
Beginning of Human-Snake Interactions and Fear of Snakes
Snakes in Religions and Human Cultures
Snakes in American, European, and Australian Cultures
Snakes in Asian and African Cultures
Myths, Folklore, Tales, and Beliefs on Snakes and The ir Implications
Human Coexistence with Snakes and Their Uses
Coexistence between Snakes and Tribes and Ethno-Ophidiology
Snakes as Medicine and Food
Aesthetic Value of Snakes
Symbols and Art of Snakes in Adornment and Entertainment
Snakes as Pets
Snake Charming
Snakes in Zoos, Serpentariums, and Museums for Sources of Knowledge and Research
Snake Trade for Skin, Bush Meat, and Venom
Snakes as Model Animals for Study and Research
Global Public Perception on Snakes and Snakebites
Human Attitudes towards Snakes
Snake Access to Human Properties/Activity Areas, Human-Snake Encounters, and Their Consequences
Knowledge about Native Snakes and Their Ecological Roles
Global Human Responses to Snakebites during Pre-Hospital Conditions
Anthropogenic Causes of Snake Population Decline
Developmental Activities as Barriers to Snakes and Their Killing by Vehicles
Ruthlessly Killing Snakes
Exploitation of Snakes in Their Natural Populations
Snake Charming
Suggested Snake Conservation Strategies
Lessening Fear of Snakes
Adopting Measures of Minimizing Human-Snake Encounters/Conflicts
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Index
About the Editor
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