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Javad Dargahi, Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Concordia University, Canada Dr. Dargahi received his PhD from Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, in the area of "Robotic Tactile Sensing", in 1993. He joined Concordia University, as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, in September 2001. He received his tenure and was promoted to associate professor in June 2006. His research areas include: Design and fabrication of haptic sensors and feedback systems for minimally invasive surgery and robotics, micromachined sensors and actuators and teletaction. Dr. Dargahi has published 65 journal and 65 refereed conference papers.
Saeed Sokhanvar, Senior Project Engineer, Helbling Precision Engineering, USA Saeed Sokhanvar is Senior Project Engineer at Helbling Precision Engineering, Cambridge, MA. Before this he was a PostDoctoral Fellow at MIT. He has received many academic awards and co-authored multiple articles in refereed journals and conference proceedings.
Siamak Najarian, Professor, Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Iran Prof. S. Najarian is Full-Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Amirkabir University of Technology. He completed his PhD in Biomedical Engineering at Oxford University, and had a post-doctoral position at the same university for one year. His research interests are the applications of artificial tactile sensing (especially in robotic surgery), mechatronics in biological systems, and design of artificial organs. He is the author and translator of 26 books in the field of biomedical engineering, 9 of which are written in English. Prof. Najarian has published more than 170 international journal and conference papers in the field of biomedical engineering along with two international books in the same field.
Preface xi
About the Authors xiii
1 Introduction to Tactile Sensing and Display 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Conventional and Modern Surgical Techniques 3
1.3 Motivation 4
1.4 Tactile Sensing 5
1.5 Force Sensing 5
1.6 Force Position 5
1.7 Softness Sensing 6
1.8 Lump Detection 7
1.9 Tactile Sensing in Humans 8
1.10 Haptic Sense 8
1.10.1 Mechanoreception 8
1.10.2 Proprioceptive Sense 11
1.11 Tactile Display Requirements 11
1.12 Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) 12
1.12.1 Advantages/Disadvantages of MIS 13
1.13 Robotics 14
1.13.1 Robotic Surgery 17
1.14 Applications 17
References 18
2 Tactile Sensing Technologies 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Capacitive Sensors 25
2.3 Conductive Elastomer Sensors 25
2.4 Magnetic-Based Sensors 26
2.5 Optical Sensors 27
2.6 MEMS-Based Sensors 28
2.7 Piezoresistive Sensors 29
2.7.1 Conductive Elastomers, Carbon, Felt, and Carbon Fibers 30
2.8 Piezoelectric Sensors 31
References 34
3 Piezoelectric Polymers: PVDF Fundamentals 37
3.1 Constitutive Equations of Crystals 37
3.2 IEEE Notation 42
3.3 Fundamentals of PVDF 43
3.4 Mechanical Characterization of Piezoelectric Polyvinylidene Fluoride Films: Uniaxial and Biaxial 44
3.4.1 The Piezoelectric Properties of Uniaxial and Biaxial PVDF Films 45
3.5 The Anisotropic Property of Uniaxial PVDF Film and Its Influence on Sensor Applications 47
3.6 The Anisotropic Property of Biaxial PVDF Film and Its Influence on Sensor Applications 51
3.7 Characterization of Sandwiched Piezoelectric PVDF Films 51
3.8 Finite Element Analysis of Sandwiched PVDF 53
3.8.1 Uniaxial PVDF Film 55
3.8.2 Biaxial PVDF Film 58
3.9 Experiments 59
3.9.1 Surface Friction Measurement 60
3.9.2 Experiments Performed on Sandwiched PVDF for Different Surface Roughness 61
3.10 Discussion and Conclusions 64
References 65
4 Design, Analysis, Fabrication, and Testing of Tactile Sensors 67
4.1 Endoscopic Force Sensor: Sensor Design 68
4.1.1 Modeling 68
4.1.2 Sensor Fabrication 71
4.1.3 Experimental Analysis 73
4.2 Multi-Functional MEMS-Based Tactile Sensor: Design, Analysis, Fabrication, and Testing 77
4.2.1 Sensor Design 77
4.2.2 Finite Element Modeling 81
4.2.3 Sensor Fabrication 84
4.2.4 Sensor Assembly 92
4.2.5 Testing and Validation: Softness Characterization 93
References 97
5 Bulk Softness Measurement Using a Smart Endoscopic Grasper 99
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Problem Definition 99
5.3 Method 100
5.4 Energy and Steepness 104
5.5 Calibrating the Grasper 105
5.6 Results and Discussion 106
References 111
6 Lump Detection 113
6.1 Introduction 113
6.2 Constitutive Equations for Hyperelasticity 113
6.2.1 Hyperelastic Relationships in Uniaxial Loading 114
6.3 Finite Element Modeling 117
6.4 The Parametric Study 119
6.4.1 The Effect of Lump Size 120
6.4.2 The Effect of Depth 122
6.4.3 The Effect of Applied Load 123
6.4.4 The Effect of Lump Stiffness 124
6.5 Experimental Validation 125
6.6 Discussion and Conclusions 127
References 128
7 Tactile Display Technology 131
7.1 The Coupled Nature of the Kinesthetic and Tactile Feedback 132
7.2 Force-Feedback Devices 134
7.3 A Review of Recent and Advanced Tactile Displays 134
7.3.1 Electrostatic Tactile Displays for Roughness 134
7.3.2 Rheological Tactile Displays for Softness 136
7.3.3 Electromagnetic Tactile Displays (Shape Display) 137
7.3.4 Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) Tactile Display (Shape) 138
7.3.5 Piezoelectric Tactile Display (Lateral Skin Stretch) 138
7.3.6 Air Jet Tactile Displays (Surface Indentation) 140
7.3.7 Thermal Tactile Displays 141
7.3.8 Pneumatic Tactile Displays (Shape) 142
7.3.9 Electrocutaneous Tactile Displays 142
7.3.10 Other Tactile Display Technologies 142
References 143
8 Grayscale Graphical Softness Tactile Display 147
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 Graphical Softness Display 147
8.2.1 Feedback System 148
8.2.2 Sensor 148
8.2.3 Data Acquisition System 150
8.2.4 Signal Processing 150
8.2.5 Results and Discussion 155
8.3 Graphical Representation of a Lump 156
8.3.1 Sensor Structure 157
8.3.2 Rendering Algorithm 158
8.3.3 Experiments 165
8.3.4 Results and Discussion 167
8.4 Summary and Conclusions 169
References 169
9 Minimally Invasive Robotic Surgery 171
9.1 Robotic System for Endoscopic Heart Surgery 173
9.2 da Vinci(TM) and Amadeus Composer(TM) Robot Surgical System 174
9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Robotic Surgery 176
9.4 Applications 178
9.4.1 Practical Applications of Robotic Surgery Today 180
9.5 The Future of Robotic Surgery 181
References 182
10 Teletaction 185
10.1 Introduction 185
10.2 Application Fields 186
10.2.1 Telemedicine or in Absentia Health Care 186
10.2.2 Telehealth or e-Health 187
10.2.3 Telepalpation, Remote Palpation, or Artificial Palpation 187
10.2.4 Telemanipulation 189
10.2.5 Telepresence 190
10.3 Basic Elements of a Teletaction System 191
10.4 Introduction to Human Psychophysics 191
10.4.1 Steven's Power Law 194
10.4.2 Law of Asymptotic Linearity 196
10.4.3 Law of Additivity 197
10.4.4 General Law of Differential Sensitivity 198
10.5 Psychophysics for Teletaction 199
10.5.1 Haptic Object Recognition 199
10.5.2 Identification of Spatial Properties 204
10.5.3 Perception of Texture 206
10.5.4 Control of Haptic Interfaces 206
10.6 Basic Issues and Limitations of Teletaction Systems 208
10.7 Applications of Teletaction 209
10.8 Minimally Invasive and Robotic Surgery (MIS and MIRS) 209
10.9 Robotics 212
10.10 Virtual Environment 213
References 215
11 Teletaction Using a Linear Actuator Feedback-Based Tactile Display 223
11.1 System Design 223
11.2 Tactile Actuator 224
11.3 Force Sensor 225
11.4 Shaft Position Sensor 227
11.5 Stress-Strain Curves 228
11.6 PID Controller 228
11.6.1 Linear Actuator Model 230
11.6.2 Verifying the Identification Results 232
11.6.3 Design of the PID Controller 233
11.7 Processing Software 237
11.8 Experiments 237
11.9 Results and Discussion 238
11.10 Summary and Conclusion 241
References 244
12 Clinical and Regulatory Challenges for Medical Devices 245
12.1 Clinical Issues 245
12.2 Regulatory Issues 247
12.2.1 Medical Product Jurisdiction 248
12.2.2 Types of Medical Devices 248
12.2.3 Medical Device Classification 249
12.2.4 Determining Device Classification 250
12.3 Medical Device Approval Process 251
12.3.1 Design Controls 252
12.3.2 The 510 (K) Premarket Notifications 252
12.3.3 The Premarket Approval Application 254
12.3.4 The Quality System Regulation 255
12.4 FDA Clearance of Robotic Surgery Systems 256
References 256
Index 259
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