Introduction
Robert G. Clouse

One of the more difficult themes with which interpreters of the Bible must deal is the teaching of the kingdom of God. The problem is brought into sharp focus when the believer gives his or her explanation of such passages as Daniel 2 and Revelation 20. Attempts to relate these texts to the course of human history have led Christians to fashion a number of different systems explaining the return of Christ and his reign, three of which have been labeled premillennial, amillennial and postmillennial. These categories, although helpful and widely accepted, are in certain respects unfortunate as the distinctions involve a great deal more than the time of Christ's return. The kingdom expected by the premillennialist is quite different from the kingdom anticipated by the postmillennialist, not only with respect to the time and manner in which it will be established but also in regard to its nature and the way Christ will exercise control over it. These views and their implications can be understood more clearly by defining them in detail.

Some Brief Definitions

Premillennialists generally believe that the return of Christ will be preceded by certain signs such as the preaching of the gospel to all nations, a great apostasy, wars, famines, earthquakes, the appearance of the Antichrist and a great tribulation. His return will be followed by a period of peace and righteousness before the end of the world. Christ will reign as King in person or through a select group of followers. This reign, rather than being established by the conversion of individual souls over a long period of time, will come about suddenly and by overwhelming power. The Jews will be converted and will become very important during this time. Nature will also share in the millennial blessings by being abundantly productive. Even ferocious beasts will be tamed. Evil is held in check during this age by Christ who rules with "a rod of iron." However, at the end of the millennium there is a rebellion of wicked men which almost overwhelms the saints. Some premillennialists have taught that during this golden age dead believers will be resurrected with their glorified bodies to mingle freely with the rest of the inhabitants of the earth. After the millennium the non-Christian dead are raised and the eternal states of heaven and hell are established.

In contrast to the premillennialist, the postmillennialist explains that the kingdom of God is now being extended through Christian teaching and preaching. This activity will cause the world to be Christianized and result in a long period of peace and prosperity called the millennium. The new age will not be essentially different from the present. It emerges as an increasing proportion of the world's inhabitants are converted to Christianity. Evil is not eliminated but will be reduced to a minimum as the moral and spiritual influence of Christians is heightened. The church will assume greater importance and many social, economic and educational problems will be solved. This period closes with the Second Coming of Christ, the resurrection of the dead and the final judgment.

Amillennialists hold that the Bible does not predict a period of universal peace and righteousness before the end of the world. They believe that there will be a continuous growth of good and evil in the world which will culminate in the Second Coming of Christ when the dead shall be raised and the last judgment held. Amillennialists hold that the kingdom of God is now present in the world as the victorious Christ is ruling his people by his Word and Spirit, though they also look forward to a future, glorious and perfect kingdom on the new earth in the life to come. Amillennialists interpret the millennium mentioned in Revelation 20 as describing the present reign of the souls of deceased believers with Christ in heaven.

Different Views at Different Times

Although these interpretations have never been without adherents in the history of the church, in certain ages a particular outlook has predominated. During the first three centuries of the Christian era, premillennialism appears to have been the dominant eschatological interpretation. Among its adherents were Papias, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Hippolytus, Methodius, Commodianus and Lactantius. During the fourth century when the Christian church was given a favored status under the emperor Constantine, the amillennial position was accepted. The millennium was reinterpreted to refer to the church, and the thousand-year reign of Christ and his saints was equated with the whole history of the church on earth, thus making for the denial of a future millennium. The famous church father, Augustine, articulated this position, and it became the dominant interpretation in medieval times. His teaching was so fully accepted that at the Council of Ephesus in 431, belief in the millennium was condemned as superstitious.

Even though official Church doctrine was amillennial, during the Middle Ages premillennialism continued among certain groups of believers. At times these millennialists used their teaching to strike at the establishment. For example, in areas whose population increased as traditional social bonds were shattered by differences in wealth, the desire for the millennium of peace and security became intense. Under leaders who claimed to be inspired by the Holy Spirit, the anxiety caused by new social conditions resulted in attempts to rebel against the oppressors in the name of God and in pursuit of the millennium.1 One of the last examples of this activity was a rebellion in the city of Münster in 1534. A man named Jan Matthys took control of the community preaching that he was Enoch preparing the way for the return of Christ by establishing a community of good and doing away with the prevailing law codes. Then he issued a call for all the faithful to gather at Münster because it was the New Jerusalem. A great multitude of Anabaptists fled to the city and were besieged by an army of both Protestants and Catholics. A reign of terror served to keep the community under the control of Matthys's successor, Jan Bockelson, but the defenses finally collapsed and the town was taken.

Perhaps this episode led the Protestant Reformers to stay with Augustinian amillennialism. However, they did inaugurate changes in eschatological interpretation which set the stage for a great renewal of premillennial interest during the seventeenth century. Martin Luther (1483-1546), for example, advocated a more literal approach to the Scriptures, identified the papacy with the Antichrist and called attention to Bible prophecies. Some later Lutheran scholars redirected this interest to focus on a premillennial interpretation. John Calvin (1509-1564), like Luther, was very cautious in his approach to millenarian interpretations, possibly because of the excesses of some of the Anabaptists.2

Despite his opposition, it was a German Calvinist theologian, Johann Heinrich Alsted (1588-1638), who revived the teaching of premillennialism in an academic form in the modern world.3 Alsted's book, The Beloved City (1627), which presented his views, caused the learned Anglican scholar, Joseph Mede (1586-1638), to become a premillennialist. The works of both men helped to inspire the desire for God's kingdom on earth which accompanied the outbreak of the Puritan Revolution of the 1640s.4 However, with the restoration of the Stuart rulers, this outlook was discredited due to its connection with radical Puritan groups such as the Fifth Monarchy Men. Even so, premillennialism was not extinct in the eighteenth century as evidenced by the interest of J. H. Bengel, Isaac Newton and Joseph Priestley.

As premillennialism waned, postmillennialism became the prevailing eschatological interpretation receiving its most impressive formulation through the work of Daniel Whitby (1638-1726). According to his interpretation, the world was to be converted to Christ, the Jews restored to their land, and the pope and Turks defeated, after which the earth would enjoy a time of universal peace, happiness and righteousness for a thousand years. At the close of this period Christ would return personally for the last judgment. Perhaps because of its agreement with the views of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, postmillennialism was adopted by the leading commentators and preachers of the age.5

During the nineteenth century premillennialism again attracted widespread attention. This interest was fostered by the violent uprooting of European political and social institutions during the era of the French Revolution.6 There was also a renewed interest in the conversion and status of the Jews. One of the more influential leaders at this time was Edward Irving (1792-1834), a Church of Scotland minister who served a church in London, published many works on prophecy and helped to organize the Albury Park prophecy conferences. These meetings set the pattern for millennial gatherings throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The prophetic enthusiasm of Irving spread to other groups and found firm support among the Plymouth Brethren movement.

J. N. Darby (1800-1882), an early Plymouth Brethren leader, articulated the dispensationalist understanding of premillennialism. He described the coming of Christ before the millennium as consisting of two stages: the first, a secret rapture removing the church before the Great Tribulation devastates the earth; the second, Christ's coming with his saints to set up the kingdom. He also...