Water-Quality Engineering in Natural Systems

PREFACE xiii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Sources of Water Pollution 2

1.3 Control of Water Pollution 6

2 WATER QUALITY 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 Physical Measures 9

2.3 Chemical Measures 14

2.4 Biological Measures 26

3 FUNDAMENTALS OF FATE AND TRANSPORT 37

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 The Advection-Diffusion Equation 37

3.3 Fundamental Solutions of the Advection-Diffusion Equation 46

3.4 Advection and Diffusion of Heat 83

3.5 Transport of Suspended Particles 85

3.6 Fate and Transport of Microorganisms in Natural Waters 87

3.7 Turbulent Diffusion 88

3.8 Dispersion 95

4 RIVERS AND STREAMS 109

4.1 Introduction 109

4.2 Transport Processes 111

4.3 Models of Spills 125

4.4 Models of Dissolved Oxygen 134

4.5 Models of Nutrients 162

4.6 Models of Pathogens 163

4.7 Contaminant Loads 165

4.8 Management and Restoration 180

5 GROUNDWATER 195

5.1 Introduction 195

5.2 Contaminant Sources 195

5.3 Fate and Transport Models 202

5.4 Transport Processes 211

5.5 Fate Processes 221

5.6 Nonaqueous Phase Liquids 233

5.7 Monitoring Wells 241

5.8 Remediation of Subsurface Contamination 246

6 WATERSHEDS 275

6.1 Introduction 275

6.2 Urban Watersheds 276

6.3 Agricultural Watersheds 300

6.4 Airsheds 321

7 LAKES AND RESERVOIRS 325

7.1 Introduction 325

7.2 Physical Processes 329

7.3 Eutrophication 334

7.4 Thermal Stratification 343

7.5 Water-Quality Models 350

7.6 Management and Restoration 368

8 WETLANDS 381

8.1 Introduction 381

8.2 Natural Wetlands 381

8.3 Constructed Treatment Wetlands 389

9 OCEANS AND ESTUARIES 409

9.1 Introduction 409

9.2 Ocean Outfalls 410

9.3 Multiport Diffusers for Dense Discharges 436

9.4 Oil Spills 439

9.5 Chemical Spills 470

9.6 Estuaries 472

10 ANALYSIS OF WATER-QUALITY MEASUREMENTS 489

10.1 Introduction 489

10.2 Probability Distributions 489

10.3 Fundamental Probability Distributions 491

10.4 Derived Probability Distributions 497

10.5 Estimation of a Population Distribution from Sample Data 501

10.6 Estimation of Parameters of Population Distribution 507

10.7 Probability Distributions of Sample Statistics 511

10.8 Confidence Intervals 515

10.9 Hypothesis Testing 518

10.10 Relationships Between Variables 532

10.11 Functions of Random Variables 538

10.12 Kriging 543

11 MODELING 561

11.1 Introduction 561

11.2 Code Selection 562

11.3 Calibration 562

11.4 Validation 575

11.5 Simulation 575

11.6 Uncertainty Analysis 575

A UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS 581

A.1 Units 581

A.2 Conversion Factors 582

B FLUID PROPERTIES 585

B.1 Water 585

B.2 Organic Compounds Found in Water 587

B.3 Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure 587

C STATISTICAL TABLES 589

C.1 Areas Under Standard Normal Curve 589

C.2 Critical Values of the t Distribution 591

C.3 Critical Values of the Chi-Square Distribution 592

C.4 Critical Values of the F Distribution (Alpha = 0.05) 593

C.5 Critical Values for the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Statistic 595

D SPECIAL FUNCTIONS 597

D.1 Error Function 597

D.2 Bessel Functions 598

D.3 Gamma Function 602

D.4 Exponential Integral 602

BIBLIOGRAPHY 605

INDEX 625