Structure Correlation

Name: Structure Correlation
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Hans-Beat Bürgi Jack D. Dunitz(Autor*in)

Wiley-VCH (Verlag)

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Erschienen am 11. Juli 2008

XLVIII, 888 Seiten

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Structure Correlation
Contents
Part I Basics
1 Molecular Structure and Coordinate Systems
1.1 Molecules and Molecular Fragments
1.2 Positional Coordinates
1.2.1 Crystal Coordinates
1.2.2 Linear Transformations
1.2.3 Symmetry Transformations
1.2.4 Molecule or Fragment Centered Coordinate Systems
1.3 Invariants of Molecular or Fragment Structure
1.3.1 Internal Coordinates
1.3.2 Distance Geometry
1.4 External or Internal Coordinates?
1.4.1 Superposition of Molecules
1.4.2 Configuration Space
1.4.3 Deformation Coordinates and Reference Structures
1.4.4 Linear Transformations in Configuration Space
2 Symmetry Aspects of Structure Correlation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Permutation Groups and Point Group Symmetries
2.3 Symmetry Coordinates, a Simple Example and some Generalizations Related to Point Group Symmetry
2.4 Symmetry Aspects of Specific Types of Molecule
2.4.1 Tetrahedral MX4, Molecules and Degenerate Irreducible Representations
2.4.2 MX5 Molecules
2.4.3 MX6 Molecules
2.4.4 Out-of-Plane Deformations of Five-Membered Rings
2.4.5 Out-of-Plane Deformations of Six-Membered Rings
2.5 Configuration Spaces for Molecules with Several Symmetrical Reference Structures
2.6 Internal Rotation in Non-Rigid Molecules
2.6.1 Ethane, One Internal Rotational Degree of Freedom
2.6.2 Simplified Symmetry Analysis of Conformationally Flexible Molecules
2.6.3 Two Internal Rotational Degrees of Freedom
2.6.4 Three Internal Rotational Degrees of Freedom
2.6.5 Four Internal Degrees of Freedom: Tetraphenylmethane and Cognate Molecules
2.7 Summary
3 Crystallographic Databases: Search and Retrieval of Information from the Cambridge Structural Database
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Crystallographic Databases
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 The Metals Crystallographic Data File (MCDF)
3.2.3 The Inorganic Crystal Structure Database (ICSD)
3.2.4 The Cambridge Structural Database (CSD)
3.2.5 The Protein Data Bank (PDB)
3.2.6 Areas of Structural Overlap
3.2.7 Data Acquisition and Data Integrity
3.3 Overview of the Cambridge Structural Database (CSD)
3.3.1 Coverage
3.3.2 The Reference Code System
3.3.3 Information Content
3.3.4 Checking and Evaluation
3.3.5 Registration and Archiving
3.3.6 Database Statistics
3.4 The CSD Software Systems
3.5 Bibliographic, Numerical, and Chemical Searching
3.5.1 The Query Language
3.5.2 Numerical Information Items
3.5.3 Text Information Items
3.5.4 Molecular Formula Information Items
3.5.5 2D Chemical Connectivity Information
3.5.6 Bit-encoded Information Items
3.5.7 Chemical Similarity Searching
3.5.8 Interactive Menu-driven Graphics
3.6 3D Searching and Geometry Tabulations
3.6.1 Overview of the GSTAT Program
3.6.2 Location of Fragments in GSTAT
3.6.3 Calculation of Fragment Geometry
3.6.4 Fragment Selection: the 3D Search Process
3.6.5 Tabulation of Fragment Geometry
3.6.6 The CSD Version 5 Upgrade
3.7 Special Considerations in Using the CSD System
3.7.1 The Reference Code System
3.7.2 Searches Using the SCREEN Command
3.7.3 Compound Name Searching
3.7.4 Chemical Connectivity Searching
3.7.4.1 Bond-Type Assignments
3.7.4.2 Treatment of Hydrogen Atoms
3.7.5 The Crystallographic Data
3.7.5.1 Accuracy and Precision
3.7.5.2 Disorder
3.7.5.3 Hydrogen Atoms
3.7.6 Geometric Searching
3.7.6.1 Bond Length Constraints
3.7.6.2 Torsion Angle Constraints: Stereochemical Searching
3.8 Conclusion
4 Statistical and Numerical Methods of Data Analysis
4.1 Introduction and Objectives
4.2 Choice of Parameters for Statistical Analysis
4.2.1 The Coordinate Basis
4.2.2 Internal Coordinate Axes
4.2.3 Internal Coordinates and Chemical Fragments
4.2.4 Internal Coordinates and Types of Analysis
4.2.4.1 Bond Length Studies
4.2.4.2 Studies of Coordination Geometry at Atomic Centres
4.2.4.3 Conformational Studies
4.2.4.4 Studies of Hydrogen Bonding
4.3 Sources of Variation in Crystallographic Structural Data
4.4 Mean Values and Other Simple Descriptive Statistics
4.4.1 Characteristics of Distributions
4.4.2 Means of Normal or Near-Normal Distributions
4.4.3 Dispersion
4.4.4 Departures from Normality
4.4.5 Estimates of Central Tendency for Non-Normal Distributions
4.5 Comparison of Distributions
4.5.1 Introduction
4.5.2 Significance of Differences between Means
4.5.3 Covariance, Correlation, and Regression
4.5.4 Comparison of Ratios
4.6 Multivariate Statistics
4.6.1 Introduction
4.6.2 Fragment Symmetry and Chirality
4.6.3 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
4.6.3.1 An Asymmetrical Example: B-1'-Aminoribofuranosides
4.6.3.2 A Symmetrical Example: Conformations of Six-Membered Rings
4.6.3.3 Symmetrical Examples: Coordinate Geometries at Metal Centres
4.6.4 Methods Based on Dissimilarity Matrices
4.6.4.1 Introduction
4.6.4.2 Measures of Dissimilarity
4.6.4.3 Multidimensional Scaling
4.6.4.4 Cluster Analysis
4.6.4.5 Cluster Analysis of Symmetrical Fragments
4.6.4.6 Symmetry-Modified Clustering: An Example
4.6.5 Mean Geometries for Complete Fragments
4.6.5.1 Least-Squares Superposition Methods
4.6.5.2 Averaging Clusters: The Most Representative Fragment
4.6.6 Miscellaneous Graphical Methods
4.7 Statistical Software
4.8 Conclusion
5 Structure Correlation
the Chemical Point of View
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Structural Probes of Reactivity, Non-Bonded Distances
5.3 Conceptual Framework: Energy Surfaces
5.3.1 Energy Minima, Force Constants and Structure Correlation
5.3.2 Energy Minima, Symmetry Force Constants and Structure Correlation
5.3.3 Reaction Profiles and Structure Correlation
5.4 The Principle of Structure-(Structure) Correlation
5.5 Structure-Energy Correlation
5.5.1 Equilibria in Crystals
5.5.2 Transition-State Theory and Free-Energy Relationships
5.5.3 Structural Reorganization in Degenerate Reactions
5.5.4 Structural Reorganization in Nondegenerate Reactions. Determination of Transition-State Structure
5.6 The Principle of Structure-Energy Correlation
5.7 Conclusions
Part II Molecular Structure and Reactivity
6 Organic Addition and Elimination Reactions
Transformation Paths of Carbonyl Derivatives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Reaction Pathway for sp2 =sp3 Transformations of Carbonyls
6.2.1 Initial Stages of Nucleophilic Addition to a Carbonyl
6.2.1.1 Correlation of Partial Pyramidalization and the Incipient Bond Distance
6.2.1.2 Distribution of the Nu ... C = O Angle in Intra- and Intermolecular Contacts
6.2.2 Initial Stages of Spontaneous Hydrolysis of Acetals
6.2.2.1 Distortions from C2v Symmetry in Acetals: Correlation of the Antisymmetric Stretching and Bending Displacement Coordinates
6.2.2.2 Structural Expression of the Anomeric Effect in Acetals
Correlation of the O-C-O Angle and Dd
6.2.2.3 Inorganic Models
6.2.2.3.1 Ligand Addition to the BO3 Group: Correlation of Partial Pyramidalization and the Incipient Bond Distance
6.2.2.3.2 Ligand Elimination from the Tetrahedral XY4 Species: Bond Length and Valence Angle Correlations
6.3 Reaction Pathway for sp2 = sp Transformations of Carbonyls
6.3.1 Initial Stages of Nucleophilic Addition to sp Centers
6.3.2 Initial Stages of Spontaneous Cleavage of Ketene Acetal-Like Fragments
6.3.2.1 Bond Length and Valence Angle Correlations in Sydnones and Enamines
6.3.2.2 Bond Length and Valence Angle Correlations in Ester Enolates
6.3.3 Initial Stages of Spontaneous Cleavage of Carbonyl Derivatives to Acylium Ion
6.3.3.1 Valence Angle Correlations in Lactones and Lactams
6.3.3.2 Bond Length and Valence Angle Correlations in RC(=O)X Derivatives
6.3.4 Reaction Path for Elimination
6.4 Computational Investigations of Reaction Pathways for Carbonyl Additions and Eliminations and Related Reactions
6.4.1 Formaldehyde
6.4.1.1 Anionic Nucleophiles
6.4.1.2 Neutral Nucleophiles
6.4.1.3 Metal Hydrides and Organometallics
6.4.2 Acetaldehyde and Homologs
6.4.3 Acetone and Homologs
6.4.4 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
6.4.5 Solvent Effects
6.5 Reaction Pathways and Chemistry of Carbonyls
6.5.1 Theoretical Elaborations of the "Rearside" Attack Model: Baldwin's and Liotta-Burgess' Trajectory Analyses
6.5.2 Consequences of Directionality of Nucleophilic Addition to Carbonyls
6.5.2.1 Directionality and Regioselection in Nucleophilic Addition to Dicarbonyl Compounds
6.5.2.2 Directionality and Diastereofacial Selection in Nucleophilic Addition to Aldehydes and Ketones
6.5.2.3 Directionality and Rate of Intramolecular Reactions of Nucleophilic Addition to Carbonyls
6.5.3 Ground State Geometry of Carbonyl and Related Compounds and Reactivity
6.5.3.1 Valence Angle vs. Bond Length Correlations and Reactivity of Acyl Derivatives towards Elimination
6.5.3.2 Ground-State Structure and Reactivity of Acetals: Empirical Potential Energy Surface and Determination of Transition-State Structure for the Spontaneous Hydrolysis of Axial Tetrahydropyranyl Acetals
6.5.3.3 Partial Pyramidalization and Intrinsic Face Preference in Diastereofacial Selection
6.6 Concluding Remarks
7 Reaction Paths for Nucleophilic Substitution(SN2)Reactions
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The XCdS3Y-Fragment
7.3 Tin Compounds with Coordination Numbers Four to Six
7.3.1 The XSnC3Y Fragment
7.3.2 The X2SnC2Y2 Fragment
7.3.3 Analogies with Pb(IV)
7.4 Silicon Compounds with Coordination Numbers Four and Five
7.4.1 The OSiC3X Fragment
7.4.2 Influence of Peripheral Substituents
7.4.3 Analogies between Si and Ge, the XGeR3Y Fragment
7.4.4 Silatranes, the NSiO3X Fragment
7.4.5 Germatranes, the NGeO3X Fragment
7.4.6 Inversion versus Retention of Configuration at Si
7.5 Nucleophilic Substitution at First Row Atoms
7.5.1 An Alatrane and a Boratrane
7.5.2 Carbon, the XCR3Y Fragment
7.6 Conclusions
8 Ligand Rearrangement and Substitution Reactions of Transition Metal Complexes
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Reaction Paths of MLn Coordination Complexes
8.2.1 ML3 Complexes
8.2.2 ML4 Complexes
8.2.2.1 Polyhedral Isomerization
8.2.2.2 Conformational Interconversions in Metal-Phosphine Complexes
8.2.3 ML5 Complexes
8.2.3.1 Associative Ligand Substitution Reactions and the Berry Rearrangement
8.2.3.2 More Sophisticated Methods of Analysis
8.2.3.3 Comparison of Structural Results with a Point-Charge Model
8.2.3.4 Retrospective Comments
8.2.4 ML6 Complexes
8.2.5 MLn Complexes, n&6
8.3 Discriminating Between Reaction Mechanisms: Metal Cluster Rearrangements
8.4 Reactions of Organometallic Compounds
8.4.1 Ring-Whizzing Reactions
8.4.2 Agostic Interactions as Precursors to H-Transfer Reactions
8.4.3 Carbonyl Transfer Reactions
8.4.4 Substitution Reactions at Sn(IV)
8.5 Beyond Geometry: Empirical Potential Energy Surfaces?
8.5.1 The Case of Cu(II) Complexes: Problems and Possibilities
8.5.1.1 Cu(II)L5 Complexes
8.5.1.2 Cu(II)L6 Complexes
8.5.2 "Pseudorotation" in Co(ethylenediamine) Chelate Rings
8.5.3 Ring Inversion in Metallacyclopentenes
8.6 Concluding Remarks
9 Conformational Analysis
9.1 Conformational Analysis
9.1.1 Introduction
9.1.2 Description of Local Conformations
9.2 Conformational Analysis of Single Molecules
9.2.1 Is the Conformation of Tetraalkyldiphosphines Caused by Stereoelectronic Influence?
9.2.2 Conformation and Chemical Reactivity
9.2.3 Chair-Boat Interconversion of Six-Membered Rings in the Solid
9.3 Conformational Analysis of Multiple Molecular Fragments
9.3.1 Low Energy Conformations of Macrocyclic Ring Systems
9.3.2 Conformational Analysis of Carboxylic Esters and Amides
9.3.3 Conformational Studies of the Methoxyphenyl Group
9.3.4 Conformation and Pseudorotation of Five-Membered Rings
9.3.5 Conformational Analysis of Cyclopentenones
9.4 Space Groups as a Tool to Visualize Conformational Variation
9.4.1 Two Torsion Angles
9.4.2 Three Torsion Angles
9.4.3 Four and More Torsion Angles
Part III Crystal Packing
10 Bond-Length - Bond-Valence Relationships in Inorganic Solids
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Bond-Length - Bond-Valence Correlations
10.2.1 The Correlation between Bond Length and Bond Valence
10.2.2 The Distortion Theorem
10.2.3 Applications of the Bond-Length - Bond-Valence Correlations
10.3 Bond Networks and the Network Theorems
10.3.1 The Bond Network as a Directed Bipartite Graph
10.3.2 The Network Equations
10.3.3 Non-Bipartite Graphs
10.3.4 The Physical Significance of Bond Valences
10.4 Bonding between Fragments - Principles of Structure Organization
10.5 Influence of the Environment on the Structure of a Fragment
10.5.1 The Decomposition of an Inorganic Structure into Fragments
10.5.2 External Bonding of Fragments
10.5.3 Internal Structure of Fragments
10.6 Failure of the Network Equations
10.6.1 Distortions Caused by Electronic Effects
10.6.2 Distortions Caused by Spatial Constraints
10.7 Conclusion
Appendix 10I . Refcodes Used
Appendix 10II . Symbols Used
11 The Role of Hydrogen Bonding in Molecular Assemblies
11.1 Introduction and Scope
11.2 What Shall We Call a Hydrogen Bond?
11.3 Electron Density Mapping of Hydrogen-Bonded Molecules
11.4 Role Played by C-H ... O and C- H ... N Interactions in Molecular Packing
11.4.1 Introduction
11.4.2 C(sp) - H ... O Interactions
11.4.3 C(sp)2 - H ... O Interactions
11.4.4 C(sp)3 - H ... O Contacts
11.4.5 Miscellaneous and Summary
11.5 Proton Disorder in Hydrogen-Bonded Systems
11.5.1 Ice and Other Structures with Disordered Hydrogen Bonds
11.5.2 Order-Disorder (O/D) of the Carboxyl Dimer and Proton Transfer
11.6 Prediction and Generation of Crystal Structures
11.7 Characterizing the Geometry and Patterns of Hydrogen Bonds
11.8 Packing Motifs of Commonly Occurring Hydrogen-Bonding Groups
11.8.1 Hydrogen-Bonding Arrangements of Molecules ROH
11.8.2 Carboxylic Acids
11.8.2.1 The Catemer Motif
11.8.2.2 The Carboxylic Acid Cyclic Dimer Motif
11.8.2.3 Lone-Pair Directionality of O - H ... O (Carboxyl) Bonds
11.8.3 Primary and Secondary Amides
11.8.3.1 Secondary Amides
11.8.3.2 The Glide or Twofold Screw Relation
11.8.3.3 The Translation Motif
11.8.3.4 Hydrogen Bonding between Molecular Chains
11.8.3.5 Primary Amides
11.8.3.6 Stacking of Amide Cyclic Dimers
11.8.4 a-Amino Acids
11.8.5 Hydrogen Bonding in Phospholipids
11.8.6 Acids and Amides with Attached Hydrogen-Bonding Groups
11.9 Co-Crystals
11.9.1 Introduction
11.9.2 Selection and Complementarity in the Formation of Co-Crystals
11.9.3 Hydrates
11.9.4 Purines and Pyrimidines
11.9.5 Co-Crystals of Carboxylic Acids and Amides
11.9.6 Host/Guest Hydrogen-Bonded Complexes
11.9.7 Crystals Based on Intrinsic Hydrogen-Bonding Characteristics (Lacking Preorganization)
11.9.8 Co-Crystals as Agents for Materials Design
11.10 The Role of Hydrogen-Bonding at Crystal Interfaces
11.10.1 Growth of Crystals in the Presence of Taylor-Made Auxiliaries
11.10.2 The Effect of Solvent on Crystal Growth
11.10.3 Taylor-Made Auxiliaries as Crystal Growth Promoters
11.11 Concluding Remarks
12 Molecular Packing and Correlations between Molecular and Crystal Properties
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Representation and Properties of a Molecule
12.2.1 Atomic Designators
12.2.2 Hydrogen Atoms
12.2.3 Derived Molecular Properties
12.2.3.1 Size
12.2.3.2 Stoichiometry
12.2.3.3 Electron Distribution
12.2.3.4 Molecular Shape
12.3 Representation and Properties of a Crystal
12.3.1 Data Retrieval and Geometrical Model
12.3.2 Crystal Energy
12.3.2.1 Definitions
12.3.2.2 The Packing Energy and its Interpretation
12.3.2.3 Energy Partitioning
12.3.2.4 Energy and the Molecular Coordination Sphere
12.3.3 Libration Energy Profiles
12.3.4 Physical Properties of the Crystal
12.4 Correlation between Molecular and Crystal Properties
12.4.1 Databases for Non-Hydrogen Bonded Crystals
12.4.2 Hydrocarbons (Satured and Unsaturated)
12.4.2.1 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
12.4.2.2 Oxygen or Nitrogen Substitution
12.4.2.3 Mutual Orientation of Carbonyl Dipoles or Benzene Rings
12.4.2.4 Directional Forces Other than H-Bonds
12.4.3 Distances between Molecules and Molecular Coordination Sphere
12.4.4 Joint Results from the three Databases
12.5 From Molecular to Crystal Structure
12.5.1 Distribution over Space Groups
12.5.2 Generation of Crystal Structures
12.5.2.1 Method
12.5.2.2 Choosing the Right Structure
12.5.3 Polymorphism
12.6 Conclusion and Outlook
Appendix 12-I Formulas and Transformations
Appendix 12-II Summary of Symbols
Part IV Proteins and Nucleic Acids
13 Structure Correlation and Ligand/Receptor Interactions
13.1 Factors Determining the Mutual Recognition and the Energetic Aspects of Ligand/Receptor Binding
13.1.1 Structural Complementarity and Energy Balance in Ligand/Receptor Binding
13.1.2 Enthalpic Contributions
13.1.3 Entropic Contributions
13.1.4 Structural Systematics in Ligand/Protein Interaction and Mapping the Environmental Characteristics of Functional Groups
13.2 Structure Correlation to Analyze and Predict Biologically Active Conformations of Small Molecule Ligands
13.2.1 The Binding of Retinol to Retinol-Binding Protein
13.2.2 The Binding of Citric Acid to Citrate Synthase
13.2.3 Conformation of Guanosine and Adenosine Phosphates in Small- Molecule and Ligand/Protein Crystal Structures
13.2.4 The Binding of Creatine to Creatinase
13.2.5 Conclusions and Predictions
13.3 Structure Correlation to Describe Elementary Steps in Enzyme Reactions and Differences in Ligand Binding Geometry
13.3.1 Nucleophilic Addition and Amide Bond Fission in Creatinase
13.3.2 Nucleophilic Substitution at Phosphorus in Ribonuclease
13.3.3 Expansion of Coordination and Change of Electronic State at Iron in Cytochrome P45Ocam
13.4 Conclusion and Outlook
14 Steroid Molecular Structure, Protein Interaction and Biological Function
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Steroid Conformation Analysis
14.2.1 The 17 B Side Chain
14.2.2 A-Ring Conformation in 4-ene-3-one Derivatives
14.3 Steroid Structure, Receptor Binding and Hormone Action
14.3.1 Estrogen Receptor Binding and Activity
14.3.2 Progesterone Receptor Binding and Activity
14.3.3 Corticoid Receptor Binding and Activity
14.3.4 Androgen Receptor Binding and Activity
14.4 Steroid-Protein Interactions and Binding
14.4.1 Steroid-Binding Enzymes
14.4.2 Steroid-Binding Proteins
14.4.3 Receptor Structure and Steroid Function
14.5 Summary
15 Structural Patterns in Globular Proteins
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Atomic Interactions
15.3 Backbone Patterns
15.3.1 Helices
15.3.2 B Strands
15.3.3 B Turns
15.3.4 Additional Loop Patterns
15.4 Motifs
15.4.1 Helical Motifs
15.4.1.1 Accessibility Lost on Complex Formation
15.4.1.2 Motifs where the Helices are Perpendicular
15.4.1.3 Tertiary Motifs
15.4.2 B-Sheet Motifs
15.4.2.1 Two-Stranded Motifs
15.4.2.2 Three-Stranded Motifs
15.4.2.3 Four-Stranded Motifs
15.4.2.4 Tertiary B-Sheet Structures
15.5 Conclusion
16 Structural Correlations in Families of Homologous Proteins
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Techniques for Comparison of Protein Structures
16.3 Comparative Analyses of Homologue Structures
16.4 Sequence Substitution Tables
16.4.1 The Solvent Inaccessible Core and Main-Chain Conformation
16.4.2 The Role of Side-Chain Hydrogen Bonds
16.5 Conclusions
17 On the Correlation of Protein Structure with Local Sequence Patterns
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Protein Sequences and Structures
17.1.2 Protein Folding
17.2 Small Peptides and Protein Structure
17.2.1 Database of Short Peptides Derived from Protein Structures
17.2.2 Classification of Hexapeptide Folds
17.2.3 Predictability of Hexapeptide Folds
17.3 Conclusion
18 Structural Patterns in Nucleic Acids
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Right-Handed and Left-Handed Double Helices
18.3 Variations in the Duplex Geometry
18.3.1 The Correlations between Backbone Torsion Angle d and Glycosidic Torsion Angle ? in A-, B, and Z-DNA
18.3.2 Influence of the Sequence on the Conformation of B-DNA
18.3.3 Other Correlations
18.3.4 Variations in the Conformation of Z-DNA
18.3.5 Structure of DNA Duplexes with Mismatched Base Pairs
18.4 Binding of Drug Molecules to the Minor Groove of B-DNA
18.5 DNA Intercalation
18.5.1 Conformational Changes in the Sugar-Phosphate Backbone
18.5.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Intercalators, DNA Unwinding. and Sequence Specificity of Intercalation
18.6 Interactions between Nucleic Acids and Proteins
18.6.1 Sequence-Specific Recognition of Double Helical Nucleic Acids
18.6.2 Architecture of DNA-binding Domains in Proteins
18.6.3 Protein-RNA Interactions
18.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects
Appendices
Appendix A
A.1 Introduction
A.2 Methodology
A.2.1 Classification of Bonds
A.2.2 Statistics
A.3 Contents and Arrangement of Tables of Interatomic Distances
A.3.1 The "Bond" Column
A.3.2 Definition of "Substructure"
A.3.3 Use of the "Note" Column
A.3.4 Locating an Entry in Table A.2
A.4 Discussion
Appendix B Short Format References to Crystal Structures Cited in this Book
Appendix C Tables of the Common Amino Acids, Purine and Pyrimidine Bases
Illustration Acknowledgements
Index

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