A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology

Name: A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology
Brand: Wiley
Price: 168.99 EUR
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Heinz P. Bloch(Autor*in)

Wiley (Verlag)

2. Auflage

Erschienen am 20. November 2006

590 Seiten

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978-0-471-92952-9 (ISBN)

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Beschreibung

A Complete overview of theory, selection, design, operation, andmaintenance
This text offers a thorough overview of the operatingcharacteristics, efficiencies, design features, troubleshooting,and maintenance of dynamic and positive displacement process gascompressors. The author examines a wide spectrum of compressorsused in heavy process industries, with an emphasis on improvingreliability and avoiding failure. Readers learn both the theoryunderlying compressors as well as the myriad day-to-day practicalissues and challenges that chemical engineers and plant operationpersonnel must address.
The text features:
* Latest design and manufacturing details of dynamic and positivedisplacement process gas compressors
* Examination of the full range of machines available for theheavy process industries
* Thorough presentation of the arrangements, materialcomposition, and basic laws governing the design of all importantprocess gas compressors
* Guidance on selecting optimum compressor configurations,controls, components, and auxiliaries to maximize reliability
* Monitoring and performance analysis for optimal machinerycondition
* Systematic methods to avoid failure through the application offield-tested reliability enhancement concepts
* Fluid instability and externally pressurized bearings
* Reliability-driven asset management strategies forcompressors
* Upstream separator and filter issues
The text's structure is carefully designed to build knowledgeand skills by starting with key principles and then moving to moreadvanced material. Hundreds of photos depicting various types ofcompressors, components, and processes are provided throughout.
Compressors often represent a multi-million dollar investmentfor such applications as petrochemical processing and refining,refrigeration, pipeline transport, and turbochargers andsuperchargers for internal combustion engines. This text enablesthe broad range of engineers and plant managers who work with thesecompressors to make the most of the investment by leading them tothe best decisions for selecting, operating, upgrading,maintaining, and troubleshooting.

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Inhalt

Intro
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PART I POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY
1 Theory
1.1 Symbols
1.2 How a Compressor Works
1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics
1.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
1.5 Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws
1.5.1 Boyle's Law
1.5.2 Charles' Law
1.5.3 Amonton's Law
1.5.4 Dalton's Law
1.5.5 Amagat's Law
1.5.6 Avogadro's Law
1.5.7 Perfect Gas Formula
1.6 Vapor Pressure
1.7 Gas and Vapor
1.8 Partial Pressures
1.9 Critical Conditions
1.10 Compressibility
1.11 Generalized Compressibility Charts
1.12 Gas Mixtures
1.13 The Mole
1.14 Specific Volume and Density
1.15 Volume Percent of Constituents
1.16 Molecular Weight of a Mixture
1.17 Specific Gravity and Partial Pressure
1.18 Ratio of Specific Heats
1.19 Pseudo-critical Conditions and Compressibility
1.20 Weight-Basis Items
1.21 Compression Cycles
1.22 Power Requirement
1.23 Compressibility Correction
1.24 Multiple Staging
1.25 Volume References
1.26 Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency
1.27 Cylinder Clearance and Compression Efficiency
Reference
2 Reciprocating Process Compressor Design Overview
2.1 Crankshaft Design
2.2 Bearings and Lubrication Systems
2.3 Connecting Rods
2.4 Crossheads
2.5 Frames and Cylinders
2.6 Cooling Provisions
2.7 Pistons
2.8 Piston and Rider Rings
2.9 Valves
2.10 Piston Rods
2.11 Packings
2.12 Cylinder Lubrication
2.13 Distance Pieces
2.14 Reciprocating Compressor Modernization
2.14.1 Cylinder Upgrades
2.14.2 Design for Easy Maintenance
2.14.3 Crosshead Designs and Attention to Reliable Lubrication
2.14.4 Materials
3 Reciprocating Compressor Performance and Monitoring Considerations
3.1 Capacity Control
3.1.1 Recycle or Bypass
3.1.2 Suction Throttling
3.1.3 Suction Valve Unloading
3.1.4 Clearance Pockets
3.2 More About Cylinder Jacket Cooling and Heating Arrangements
3.2.1 Methods of Cooling
3.3 Comparing Lubricated and Nonlubricated Conventional Cylinder Construction
3.3.1 Lubricated Cylinder Designs
3.3.2 Nonlubricated Cylinder Design
3.4 Compressor Vent and Buffer Systems
3.5 Compressor Instrumentation
3.5.1 Electric vs. Pneumatic Switches
3.5.2 Switch Set Points
3.5.3 Control Panels
3.5.4 Valve-in-Piston Reciprocating Compressors
3.5.5 Barrel-Frame Reciprocating Compressors
3.6 Condition Monitoring of Reciprocating Compressors
3.6.1 Maintenance Strategies
3.6.2 Justification for Machine Monitoring
3.6.3 What to Monitor and Why
References
4 Labyrinth Piston Compressors
4.1 Main Design Features
4.2 Energy Consumption
4.3 Sealing Problems
5 Hypercompressors
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cylinders and Piston Seals
5.3 Cylinder Heads and Valves
5.4 Drive Mechanism
5.5 Miscellaneous Problems
5.6 Conclusions
6 Metal Diaphragm Compressors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Terminology
6.3 Description
7 Lobe and Sliding Vane Compressors
8 Liquid Ring Compressors
9 Rotary Screw Compressors and Filter Separators
9.1 Twin-Screw Machines
9.1.1 Working Phases
9.1.2 Areas of Application
9.1.3 Dry vs. Liquid-Injected Machines
9.1.4 Operating Principles
9.1.5 Flow Calculation
9.1.6 Power Calculation
9.1.7 Temperature Rise
9.1.8 Capacity Control
9.1.9 Mechanical Construction
9.1.10 Industry Experience
9.1.11 Maintenance History
9.1.12 Performance Summary
9.2 Oil-Flooded Single-Screw Compressors
9.3 Selecting Modern Reverse-Flow Filter-Separator Technology
9.3.1 Conventional Filter-Separators vs. SCCs
9.3.2 Removal Efficiencies
9.3.3 Filter Quality
9.3.4 Selecting the Most Suitable Gas Filtration Equipment
9.3.5 Evaluating the Proposed Configurations
9.3.6 Life-Cycle-Cost Calculations
9.3.7 Conclusions
10 Reciprocating Compressor Performance and Sizing Fundamentals
10.1 Theoretical Maximum Capacity
10.2 Capacity Losses
10.3 Valve Preload
10.4 Valve and Gas Passage Throttling
10.5 Piston Ring Leakage
10.6 Packing Leakage
10.7 Discharge Valve Leakage
10.8 Suction Valve Leakage
10.9 Heating Effects
10.10 Pulsation Effects
10.11 Horsepower
10.12 Horsepower Adders
10.13 Gas Properties
10.13.1 Ideal Gas
10.13.2 Real Gas
10.14 Alternative Equations of State
10.15 Condensation
10.16 Frame Loads
10.17 Compressor Displacement and Clearance
10.18 Staging
10.19 Fundamentals of Sizing
10.19.1 Number of Stages
10.19.2 Approximate Horsepower
10.19.3 Cylinder Bore Requirements
10.19.4 Frame Load
10.19.5 Vendor Confirmation
10.20 Sizing Examples
PART II DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR TECHNOLOGY
11 Simplified Equations for Determining the Performance of Dynamic Compressors
11.1 Nonoverloading Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors
11.2 Stability
11.3 Speed Change
11.4 Compressor Drive
11.5 Calculations
12 Design Considerations and Manufacturing Techniques
12.1 Axially vs. Radially Split
12.2 Tightness
12.3 Material Stress
12.4 Nozzle Location and Maintenance
12.5 Design Overview
12.5.1 Casings
12.5.2 Flow Path
12.5.3 Rotors
12.5.4 Impellers
12.5.5 Axial Blading
12.5.6 Seals
12.6 Bearing Configurations
12.6.1 Radial Bearings
12.6.2 Thrust Bearings
12.6.3 Flexure Pivot Tilt Pad Bearings
12.7 Casing Design Criteria
12.8 Casing Manufacturing Techniques
12.9 Stage Design Considerations
12.10 Impeller Manufacturing Techniques
12.11 Rotor Dynamic Considerations
12.12 Fouling Considerations and Coatings
12.12.1 Polymerization and Fouling
12.12.2 Fouling and Its Effect on Compressor Operation
12.12.3 Coating Case Study
12.12.4 SermaLon Coating
12.12.5 Results
13 Advanced Sealing and Bearing Systems
13.1 Background
13.2 Dry Seals
13.2.1 Operating Principles
13.2.2 Operating Experience
13.2.3 Problems and Solutions
13.2.4 Dry Seal Upgrade Developments
13.2.5 Dry Gas Seal Failures Avoided by Gas Conditioning
13.3 Magnetic Bearings
13.3.1 Operating Principles
13.3.2 Operating Experience and Benefits
13.3.3 Problems and Solutions
13.4 Development Efforts
13.4.1 Thrust-Reducing Seals
13.5 Integrated Designs
13.6 Fluid-Induced Instability and Externally Pressurized Bearings
13.6.1 Instability Considerations
13.6.2 Fluid-Induced Instability
13.6.3 Eccentricity and Stiffness
13.6.4 Externally Pressurized Bearings and Seals
13.6.5 Practical Applications
13.6.6 Rotor Model, Dynamic Stiffness, and Fluid Instability
13.6.7 Root Locus Stability Analysis
13.6.8 More About Externally Pressurized Bearings
13.6.9 Field Data Collection
13.6.10 Test Stand Data
13.6.11 Conclusions
References
Suggested Reading
14 Couplings, Torque Transmission, and Torque Sensing
14.1 Coupling Overview
14.1.1 Low Overhung Moment
14.1.2 Low Residual Unbalance Desired
14.1.3 Long Life and Maintainability
14.1.4 Continuous Lubrication Not a Cure-All
14.1.5 Contoured Diaphragm Coupling
14.2 Coupling Retrofits and Upgrades
14.3 Performance Optimization Through Torque Monitoring
15 Lubrication, Sealing, and Control Oil Systems for Turbomachinery
15.1 Considerations Common to All Systems
15.2 Seal Oil Considerations
16 Compressor Control
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Control System Objectives
16.3 Compressor Maps
16.3.1 Invariant Coordinates
16.4 Performance Control
16.4.1 PI and PID Control Algorithms
16.4.2 Stability Considerations
16.4.3 Integral or Reset Windup
16.5 Performance Limitations
16.5.1 Surge Limit
16.5.2 Stonewall
16.6 Preventing Surge
16.6.1 Antisurge Control Variables
16.6.2 Antisurge Control Algorithms
16.6.3 Controlling Limiting Variables
16.7 Loop Decoupling
16.8 Conclusions
Reference
17 Head-Flow Curve Shape of Centrifugal Compressors
17.1 Compressor Stage
17.2 Elements of the Characteristic Shape
17.2.1 Basic Slope
17.2.2 Blade Angle
17.2.3 Fan Law Effect
17.2.4 Choke Effect
17.2.5 Mach Number
17.2.6 Significance of Gas Weight
17.2.7 Inducer Impeller Effects on Head Output
17.2.8 Surge
17.2.9 Vaned Diffusers
17.2.10 Vaneless Diffusers
17.2.11 Equivalent Tip Speeds
17.3 Conclusions
18 Use of Multiple-Inlet Compressors
18.1 Critical Selection Criteria
18.1.1 Head Rise to Surge, Surge Margin, and Overload Margin
18.1.2 Head per Section
18.1.3 Compressor Parasitic Flows
18.1.4 Excess Margins on Other Process Equipment
18.1.5 Representing Compressor Performance
18.1.6 Practical Levels of Critical Operating Parameters
18.2 Design of a Sideload Compressor
18.2.1 Mixing Area
18.2.2 Aerodynamics
18.2.3 Temperature Stratification
18.3 Testing
18.3.1 Test Setup
18.3.2 Instrumentation
18.3.3 Testing Procedure
18.3.4 Accuracy of Test Results
18.3.5 Evaluation of Results
19 Compressor Performance Testing
19.1 Performance Testing of New Compressors
19.1.1 Re-rate Options
19.1.2 General Guidelines
19.1.3 Gas Sampling
19.1.4 Instrumentation
19.1.5 Sideload Compressors
19.1.6 Calculation Procedures
19.2 Shop Testing and Types of Tests
19.3 Field Testing
19.4 Predicting Compressor Performance at Other Than As-Designed Conditions
19.4.1 How Performance Tests Are Documented
19.4.2 Design Parameters: What Affects Performance
19.4.3 What to Seek from Vendors' Documents
19.4.4 Illustrations and Example
References
20 Procurement, Audit, and Asset Management Decisions
20.1 Incentives to Buy from Knowledgeable and Cooperative Compressor Vendors
20.2 Industry Standards and Their Purpose
20.2.1 Typical Scope of Standards
20.2.2 Disclaimers in Standards
20.2.3 Going Beyond the Standards
20.3 Disadvantages of Cheap Process Compressors
20.4 Audits vs. Reviews
20.4.1 Staffing and Timing of Audits and Reviews
20.4.2 Use of Equipment Downtime Statistics
20.5 Auditing and Reviewing Compressors
20.6 Compressor Inspection: Extension of the Audit Effort
20.6.1 Inspection of a Welded Impeller (Wheel) and the Entire Rotor
20.7 Compressor Installation Specifications
20.7.1 Field Erection and Installation Specifications for Special-Purpose Machinery
References
21 Reliability-Driven Asset Management Strategies
21.1 Strategy for Reciprocating Compressors
21.1.1 Process Operating Window
21.1.2 Breakdown Maintenance
21.1.3 Time-Based Maintenance
21.1.4 Equipment Health Monitoring
21.1.5 Reliability and Maintenance
21.1.6 Asset Management Strategy
21.2 Achieving Compressor Asset Optimization
21.2.1 Input Obtained from Workshops
21.2.2 Conclusions
References
APPENDIX A PROPERTIES OF COMMON GASES
APPENDIX B SHORTCUT CALCULATIONS AND GRAPHICAL COMPRESSOR SELECTION PROCEDURES
APPENDIX C BIBLIOGRAPHY AND LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
INDEX

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