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About the Author xv
Foreword xvii
Series Preface xix
Preface to Second Edition xxi
Preface to First Edition xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition and History of Tribology 1
1.2 Industrial Significance of Tribology 3
1.3 Origins and Significance of Micro/Nanotribology 4
1.4 Organization of the Book 6
References 7
2 Structure and Properties of Solids 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Atomic Structure, Bonding and Coordination 9
2.2.1 Individual Atoms and Ions 9
2.2.2 Molecules, Bonding and Atomic Coordination 13
2.3 Crystalline Structures 33
2.3.1 Planar Structures 33
2.3.2 Nonplanar Structures 39
2.4 Disorder in Solid Structures 41
2.4.1 Point Defects 41
2.4.2 Line Defects (Dislocations) 41
2.4.3 Surfaces/Internal Boundaries 44
2.4.4 Solid Solutions 45
2.5 Atomic Vibrations and Diffusions 45
2.6 Phase Diagrams 46
2.7 Microstructures 48
2.8 Elastic and Plastic Deformation, Fracture and Fatigue 49
2.8.1 Elastic Deformation 51
2.8.2 Plastic Deformation 53
2.8.3 Plastic Deformation Mechanisms 56
2.8.4 Fracture 62
2.8.5 Fatigue 68
2.9 Time-Dependent Viscoelastic/Viscoplastic Deformation 74
2.9.1 Description of Time-Dependent Deformation Experiments 77
Problems 80
References 81
Further Reading 82
3 Solid Surface Characterization 83
3.1 The Nature of Surfaces 83
3.2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Surface Layers 84
3.2.1 Deformed Layer 84
3.2.2 Chemically Reacted Layer 85
3.2.3 Physisorbed Layer 86
3.2.4 Chemisorbed Layer 87
3.2.5 Surface Tension, Surface Energy, and Wetting 87
3.2.6 Methods of Characterization of Surface Layers 90
3.3 Analysis of Surface Roughness 90
3.3.1 Average Roughness Parameters 92
3.3.2 Statistical Analyses 99
3.3.3 Fractal Characterization 125
3.3.4 Practical Considerations in the Measurement of Roughness Parameters 127
3.4 Measurement of Surface Roughness 131
3.4.1 Mechanical Stylus Method 133
3.4.2 Optical Methods 137
3.4.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) Methods 155
3.4.4 Fluid Methods 163
3.4.5 Electrical Method 166
3.4.6 Electron Microscopy Methods 166
3.4.7 Analysis of Measured Height Distribution 168
3.4.8 Comparison of Measurement Methods 168
3.5 Closure 174
Problems 175
References 176
Further Reading 179
4 Contact between Solid Surfaces 181
4.1 Introduction 181
4.2 Analysis of the Contacts 182
4.2.1 Single Asperity Contact of Homogeneous and Frictionless Solids 182
4.2.2 Single Asperity Contact of Layered Solids in Frictionless and Frictional Contacts 199
4.2.3 Multiple Asperity Dry Contacts 209
4.3 Measurement of the Real Area of Contact 251
4.3.1 Review of Measurement Techniques 251
4.3.2 Comparison of Different Measurement Techniques 255
4.3.3 Typical Measurements 259
4.4 Closure 262
Problems 264
References 265
Further Reading 269
5 Adhesion 271
5.1 Introduction 271
5.2 Solid-Solid Contact 272
5.2.1 Covalent Bond 276
5.2.2 Ionic or Electrostatic Bond 276
5.2.3 Metallic Bond 277
5.2.4 Hydrogen Bond 278
5.2.5 Van der Waals Bond 278
5.2.6 Free Surface Energy Theory of Adhesion 279
5.2.7 Polymer Adhesion 287
5.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 288
5.3.1 Idealized Geometries 290
5.3.2 Multiple-Asperity Contacts 305
5.4 Closure 316
Problems 317
References 317
Further Reading 320
6 Friction 321
6.1 Introduction 321
6.2 Solid-Solid Contact 323
6.2.1 Rules of Sliding Friction 323
6.2.2 Basic Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 328
6.2.3 Other Mechanisms of Sliding Friction 349
6.2.4 Friction Transitions During Sliding 354
6.2.5 Static Friction 356
6.2.6 Stick-Slip 358
6.2.7 Rolling Friction 362
6.3 Liquid-Mediated Contact 366
6.4 Friction of Materials 369
6.4.1 Friction of Metals and Alloys 371
6.4.2 Friction of Ceramics 375
6.4.3 Friction of Polymers 380
6.4.4 Friction of Solid Lubricants 383
6.5 Closure 392
Problems 396
References 397
Further Reading 400
7 Interface Temperature of Sliding Surfaces 403
7.1 Introduction 403
7.2 Thermal Analysis 404
7.2.1 Fundamental Heat Conduction Solutions 405
7.2.2 High Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa ~ 1) (Individual Contact) 406
7.2.3 Low Contact-Stress Condition (Ar /Aa I 1) (Multiple-Asperity Contact) 415
7.3 Interface Temperature Measurements 431
7.3.1 Thermocouple and Thin-Film Temperature Sensors 431
7.3.2 Radiation Detection Techniques 434
7.3.3 Metallographic Techniques 440
7.3.4 Liquid Crystals 441
7.4 Closure 442
Problems 444
References 444
8 Wear 447
8.1 Introduction 447
8.2 Types of Wear Mechanisms 448
8.2.1 Adhesive Wear 448
8.2.2 Abrasive Wear (by Plastic Deformation and Fracture) 459
8.2.3 Fatigue Wear 475
8.2.4 Impact Wear 484
8.2.5 Chemical (Corrosive) Wear 493
8.2.6 Electrical Arc-Induced Wear 495
8.2.7 Fretting and Fretting Corrosion 497
8.3 Types of Particles Present in Wear Debris 499
8.3.1 Plate-Shaped Particles 499
8.3.2 Ribbon-Shaped Particles 499
8.3.3 Spherical Particles 500
8.3.4 Irregularly Shaped Particles 503
8.4 Wear of Materials 503
8.4.1 Wear of Metals and Alloys 505
8.4.2 Wear of Ceramics 510
8.4.3 Wear of Polymers 517
8.5 Closure 522
Appendix 8.A Indentation Cracking in Brittle Materials 525
8.A.1 Blunt Indenter 526
8.A.2 Sharp Indenter 526
Appendix 8.B Analysis of Failure Data Using the Weibull Distribution 532
8.B.1 General Expression of the Weibull Distribution 532
8.B.2 Graphical Representation of a Weibull Distribution 534
Problems 538
References 539
Further Reading 543
9 Fluid Film Lubrication 545
9.1 Introduction 545
9.2 Regimes of Fluid Film Lubrication 546
9.2.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 546
9.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 546
9.2.3 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 548
9.2.4 Mixed Lubrication 549
9.2.5 Boundary Lubrication 549
9.3 Viscous Flow and the Reynolds Equation 550
9.3.1 Viscosity and Newtonian Fluids 550
9.3.2 Fluid Flow 555
9.4 Hydrostatic Lubrication 569
9.5 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 579
9.5.1 Thrust Bearings 581
9.5.2 Journal Bearings 594
9.5.3 Squeeze Film Bearings 613
9.5.4 Gas-Lubricated Bearings 616
9.6 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 632
9.6.1 Forms of Contacts 633
9.6.2 Line Contact 634
9.6.3 Point Contact 644
9.6.4 Thermal Correction 645
9.6.5 Lubricant Rheology 646
9.7 Closure 647
Problems 649
References 650
Further Reading 652
10 Boundary Lubrication and Lubricants 655
10.1 Introduction 655
10.2 Boundary Lubrication 656
10.2.1 Effect of Adsorbed Gases 658
10.2.2 Effect of Monolayers and Multilayers 659
10.2.3 Effect of Chemical Films 662
10.2.4 Effect of Chain Length (or Molecular Weight) 664
10.3 Liquid Lubricants 665
10.3.1 Principal Classes of Lubricants 665
10.3.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lubricants 671
10.3.3 Additives 680
10.4 Ionic Liquids 681
10.4.1 Composition of Ionic Liquids 682
10.4.2 Properties of Ionic Liquids 684
10.4.3 Lubrication Mechanisms of ILs 685
10.4.4 Issues on the Applicability of Ionic Liquids as Lubricants 685
10.5 Greases 686
10.6 Closure 686
References 687
Further Reading 688
11 Nanotribology 689
11.1 Introduction 689
11.2 SFA Studies 691
11.2.1 Description of an SFA 692
11.2.2 Static (Equilibrium), Dynamic, and Shear Properties of Molecularly Thin Liquid Films 694
11.3 AFM/FFM Studies 703
11.3.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 704
11.3.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 712
11.3.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining 741
11.3.4 Indentation 752
11.3.5 Boundary Lubrication 758
11.4 Atomic-Scale Computer Simulations 773
11.4.1 Interatomic Forces and Equations of Motion 773
11.4.2 Interfacial Solid Junctions 775
11.4.3 Interfacial Liquid Junctions and Confined Films 776
11.5 Closure 778
References 781
Further Reading 788
12 Friction and Wear Screening Test Methods 789
12.1 Introduction 789
12.2 Design Methodology 789
12.2.1 Simulation 790
12.2.2 Acceleration 790
12.2.3 Specimen Preparation 790
12.2.4 Friction and Wear Measurements 791
12.3 Typical Test Geometries 794
12.3.1 Sliding Friction and Wear Tests 794
12.3.2 Abrasion Tests 797
12.3.3 Rolling-Contact Fatigue Tests 799
12.3.4 Solid-Particle Erosion Test 799
12.3.5 Corrosion Tests 800
12.4 Closure 802
References 802
Further Reading 803
13 Bulk Materials, Coatings, and Surface Treatments for Tribology 805
13.1 Introduction 805
13.2 Bulk Materials 806
13.2.1 Metals and Alloys 808
13.2.2 Ceramics and Cermets 826
13.2.3 Ceramic-Metal Composites 840
13.2.4 Solid Lubricants and Self-Lubricating Solids 841
13.3 Coatings and Surface Treatments 861
13.3.1 Coating Deposition Techniques 864
13.3.2 Surface Treatment Techniques 885
13.3.3 Criteria for Selecting Coating Material/Deposition and Surface Treatment Techniques 890
13.4 Closure 892
References 892
Further Reading 896
14 Tribological Components and Applications 899
14.1 Introduction 899
14.2 Common Tribological Components 899
14.2.1 Sliding-Contact Bearings 899
14.2.2 Rolling-Contact Bearings 901
14.2.3 Seals 903
14.2.4 Gears 905
14.2.5 Cams and Tappets 907
14.2.6 Piston Rings 908
14.2.7 Electrical Brushes 910
14.3 MEMS/NEMS 912
14.3.1 MEMS 914
14.3.2 NEMS 921
14.3.3 BioMEMS 921
14.3.4 Microfabrication Processes 922
14.4 Material Processing 923
14.4.1 Cutting Tools 923
14.4.2 Grinding and Lapping 927
14.4.3 Forming Processes 927
14.4.4 Cutting Fluids 928
14.5 Industrial Applications 930
14.5.1 Automotive Engines 930
14.5.2 Gas Turbine Engines 932
14.5.3 Railroads 934
14.5.4 Magnetic Storage Devices 935
14.6 Closure 942
References 943
Further Reading 947
15 Green Tribology and Biomimetics 949
15.1 Introduction 949
15.2 Green Tribology 949
15.2.1 Twelve Principles of Green Tribology 950
15.2.2 Areas of Green Tribology 951
15.3 Biomimetics 954
15.3.1 Lessons from Nature 955
15.3.2 Industrial Significance 958
15.4 Closure 959
References 959
Further Reading 961
Appendix A Units, Conversions, and Useful Relations 963
A.1 Fundamental Constants 963
A.2 Conversion of Units 963
A.3 Useful Relations 964
Index 965
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