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List of Contributors xv
Foreword xxi
1 Important Plant-Based Phytonutrients 1 AvikBasu, Saikat Kumar Basu, Ratnabali Sengupta, Muhammad Asif, Xianping Li, Yanshan Li, Arvind Hirani, Peiman Zandi, Muhammad Sajad, Francisco Solorio- Sánchez, Ambrose Obongo Mbuya, William Cetzal-Ix, Sonam Tashi, Tshitila Jongthap, Danapati Dhungyel and Mukhtar Ahmad
List of Abbreviations 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods in Human Health 3
1.3 Plants with Potential for Use as Nutraceutical Source and Functional Food Component 49
1.4 Nutraceutical Values of Fenugreek 49
1.4.1 Fenugreek Possesses the Following Medicinal Properties 50
1.5 Coloured Potatoes as Functional Food 51
1.6 Red Wine as Functional Food 54
1.7 Tea as Functional Food 54
1.8 Cereals as Nutraceuticals 55
1.9 Nutraceutical Properties of Wheat Bran and Germ 58
1.9.1 Wheat Bran 58
1.9.2 Wheat Germ 59
1.10 Barley and Oat as Nutraceuticals 59
1.11 Value-Added Products 59
1.12 Conclusion 61
Acknowledgements 61
References 61
2 Biotechnological Interventions for Improvement of Plant Nutritional Value: From Mechanisms to Applications 83 Rajan Katoch, Sunil Kumar Singh and Neelam Thakur
2.1 Introduction 83
2.2 Improvement of Food Nutrition 84
2.3 Improvement of Nutritional Value Through Crop Improvement 85
2.4 Identification of Genes With the Potential to Improve the Nutritional Quality 86
2.5 Genetic Engineering for the Introduction of Nutritionally Potential Genes 90
2.6 Nutritional Improvement Through Recent Biotechnological Advances 92
2.7 Production of Health Care Products 94
2.7.1 The Development of Oral Vaccines in Plant System 95
2.7.2 Advantages of Plant System in the Development of Oral Vaccines 96
2.7.3 Edible Vaccine against Hepatitis B Virus 98
2.8 Major Biotechnological Advances in Nutritional Improvement of Plants 99
2.9 Conclusion 100
References 100
3 Nutrient Biofortification of Staple Food Crops: Technologies, Products and Prospects 113 Chavali Kameswara Rao and Seetharam Annadana
3.1 Introduction 113
3.2 The Concepts of Nutrition and Malnutrition 114
3.2.1 Nutrition, Macronutrients, Micronutrients and Balanced Diets 114
3.2.2 Hunger, Nutritional Security, Undernutrition and Malnutrition 116
3.2.3 The Metabolic Syndrome 116
3.3 Strategies to Enhance Nutrient Intake and Nutrient Content of Plant Foods 118
3.3.1 Interventions to Enhance Nutrient Intake 118
3.3.2 Technologies for Biofortification 119
3.3.3 Common Genetic Engineering Technologies 120
3.3.4 Alternative Genetic Engineering Technologies 122
3.3.5 Recent Genetic Engineering Technologies 123
3.3.6 Moral and Ethical Arguments Against Genetic Engineering Technologies 124
3.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Modification of Dietary Carbohydrates 125
3.4.1 The Carbohydrates 125
3.4.2 Modifying Levels of Components of Starch 128
3.4.3 Engineering Levels of Fructans 129
3.4.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Enhancement Dietary Fibre 130
3.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Enhancement of Proteins and Amino Acids 131
3.5.1 The Proteins and Amino Acids 131
3.5.2 Enhancement of Total Protein 132
3.5.3 Enhancement of Levels of Lysine 132
3.5.4 Enhancement of Levels of Methionine 133
3.5.5 Simultaneous Enhancement of levels Several Amino Acids 133
3.5.6 Artificial Storage Protein 133
3.5.7 Alternate Interventions 134
3.5.8 Non-Proteinogenic Amino Acids 135
3.6 Quantitative and Qualitative Enhancement of Fatty Acids in Oil Seed Crops 136
3.6.1 Lipids, Fats and Oils 136
3.6.2 Cholesterol 136
3.6.3 Characterisation of Fatty Acids, Dietary Fats and Oils 136
3.6.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Improvement of Oil Seed Crops 137
3.6.5 The New Shift in Fat Paradigm and Its Implications 140
3.7 Enhancement of Levels of Vitamins 141
3.7.1 The Vitamins 141
3.7.2 Retinoids (Vitamin A) 142
3.7.3 Folate (Vitamin B9) 145
3.7.4 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) 146
3.7.5 Tocopherols (Vitamin E) 147
3.7.6 Multi-vitamin Corn 148
3.8 Enhancement of Levels of Mineral Elements 148
3.8.1 Role of Mineral Elements in Human Health 148
3.8.2 Iron (Fe) 150
3.8.3 Zinc (Zn) 152
3.8.4 Calcium (Ca) 154
3.8.5 Selenium (Se) 155
3.8.6 Iodine (I) 156
3.8.7 Fluoride (Fl) 157
3.9 Enhancement of Antioxidants 157
3.9.1 The Antioxidants 157
3.9.2 Lycopene 158
3.9.3 Flavonoids 159
3.9.4 Carotenoids 159
3.9.5 Other Antioxidants 160
3.9.6 Thermal Stability of Antioxidants 160
3.10 Mitigation of Levels of Antinutritional Factors 160
3.10.1 The Antinutritional Factors 160
3.10.2 Phytate 160
3.10.3 Inhibitors of Digestive Enzymes 162
3.10.4 Reducing Levels of Allergens 162
3.10.5 Other Significant Antinutritional Factors 163
3.11 Conclusions and Recommendations 163
Acknowledgement 167
References 167
4 Applications of RNA-Interference and Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) for Nutritional Genomics in Crop Plants 185 Subodh Kumar Sinha and Basavaprabhu L. Patil
4.1 Introduction 185
4.2 RNA Interference 186
4.2.1 RNAi in Modification of Primary Metabolism 186
4.2.2 RNAi for Modification of Secondary Metabolism 188
4.3 Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS) for Biofortification 192
4.4 Conclusions 195
References 196
5 Strategies for Enhancing Phytonutrient Content in Plant-Based Foods 203 Carla S. Santos, Noureddine Benkeblia and Marta W. Vasconcelos
5.1 Introduction 203
5.2 What are Phytonutrients? 204
5.3 Which Plant-Based Foods are the Best Known Sources of Phytonutrients? 205
5.4 How Can We Enhance Phytonutrients? 207
5.4.1 Conventional Breeding 207
5.4.2 Molecular Breeding 208
5.4.3 Metabolic Engineering and Genetic Modification 208
5.5 Phenotyping for Phytonutrients at Different Levels 210
5.5.1 Low Throughput Techniques 210
5.5.2 High-Throughput Techniques 213
5.6 The Future Ahead/Concluding Remarks 216
Acknowledgements 217
References 217
6 The Use of Genetic Engineering to Improve the Nutritional Profile of Traditional Plant Foods 233 Marta R.M. Lima, Carla S. Santos and Marta W. Vasconcelos
6.1 Introduction 233
6.1.1 Nutrients in Plant Foods 233
6.1.2 Consequences of Malnutrition 235
6.1.3 Strategies to Overcome Malnutrition 235
6.2 What Are Genetically Engineered Crops? 236
6.2.1 Plant Genetic Transformation Technologies 236
6.2.2 Traditional Foods with Enhanced Nutritional Profiles: Case Studies 238
6.3 GM Plant Foods Under Approval for Commercial Utilisation 245
6.4 Socioeconomic Impact and Safety of GM Foods 247
Acknowledgements 248
References 248
7 Carotenoids: Biotechnological Improvements for Human Health and Sustainable Development 259 George G. Khachatourians
7.1 Introduction 259
7.2 Occurrence 260
7.3 Discovery and Early History 260
7.4 Carotenoids Use in Human Foods and Biotechnology 262
7.5 Use of Carotenoids in Animal Feed 264
7.6 Global Market Situation and Sustainability 264
7.7 Carotenoid Biosynthesis and Function in Plants 266
7.8 Conclusion and Perspectives 268
References 268
8 Progress in Enrichment and Metabolic Profiling of Diverse Carotenoids in Tropical Fruits: Importance of Hyphenated Techniques 271 Bangalore Prabhashankar Arathi, Poorigali Raghavendra-Rao Sowmya, Kariyappa Vijay, Vallikannan Baskaran and Rangaswamy Lakshminarayana
8.1 Introduction 271
8.2 Trends in Biosynthesis of Carotenoids and their Profiling in Plants and Tropical Fruits 274
8.3 Biotechnological Approaches to Enrich Carotenoids in Tropical Fruits 281
8.3.1 Conventional Approaches to Enrich Carotenoids in Tropical Fruits 283
8.3.2 Pre- and Post-Harvest Technology to Improve Carotenoids Contents in Tropical Fruits 283
8.4 Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Carotenoids From Fruits and Their Products 285
8.5 Techniques to Characterise Carotenoids from Fruits 291
8.6 Conclusion 294
Acknowledgements 294
References 295
9 Improvement of Carotenoid Accumulation in Tomato Fruit 309 Lihong Liu, Zhiyong Shao, Min Zhang, Tianyu Liu, Haoran Liu, Shuo Li, Yuanyuan Liu and Qiaomei Wang
List of Abbreviations 309
9.1 Introduction 310
9.2 Metabolism of Carotenoid in Tomato 312
9.2.1 Biosynthesis of Carotenoid 312
9.2.2 Catabolism of Carotenoid 315
9.3 The Biosynthetic Capacities of the Plastid 316
9.4 Hormonal Regulatory Network of Carotenoid Metabolism 317
9.4.1 Ethylene 317
9.4.2 Jasmonates 318
9.4.3 Brassinosteroids 319
9.4.4 Abscisic acid 319
9.4.5 Gibberellin 320
9.4.6 Auxin 320
9.5 Environmental Regulation of Carotenoid Metabolism 320
9.5.1 Light 320
9.5.2 Temperature 322
9.5.3 Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) 322
9.5.4 Post-Harvest Regulation 322
9.6 Bioavailability of Carotenoid 322
9.7 Food Omics 324
Acknowledgements 324
References 327
10 Modern Biotechnologies and Phytonutritional Improvement of Grape and Wine 339 Atanas Atanassov, Teodora Dzhambazova, Ivanka Kamenova, Ivan Tsvetkov, Vasil Georgiev, Ivayla Dincheva, Ilian Badjakov, Dasha Mihaylova, Miroslava Kakalova, Atanas Pavlov and Plamen Mollov
10.1 Grape Genomics 339
10.1.1 Identifying Genes Behind the Main Secondary Metabolites 340
10.1.2 Identifying Disease Resistance Genes in Vitis sp.-a New Level of Grapevine Breeding 341
10.2 Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) and Genomic Selection (GS) of Grapevine 342
10.3 Engineered Resistance to Viruses 343
10.4 Diagnosis of Grapevine Viruses 350
10.4.1 Biological Assays 350
10.4.2 Serological Assays 350
10.4.3 Molecular Assays 351
10.5 Phytonutritional Compounds with Biological Activity in Grape and Wine and Their Target Analyses 353
10.5.1 Biologically Active Substances Found in Grape and Wine 353
10.5.2 LC-MS and GC-MS Based Analysis and Metabolomics 358
10.5.3 NMR-Based Metabolomic Analysis of Grape and Wine 360
10.6 Wine Quality 361
10.6.1 What is the Particular Meaning We Imply to the Term 'Quality of Wine'? 361
10.6.2 How is the Wine Quality Created? 362
10.7 Grapevine Genetic Resources- Prospects in Management and Sustainable Use 367
10.7.1 European Policy, Regulation and Coordination Initiatives 367
10.7.2 Vitis Grapevine Genebanks, Collections and Databases 368
10.7.3 European Scientific Achievements 369
References 370
11 Phytonutrient Improvements of Sweetpotato 391 Noureddine Benkeblia
11.1 Introduction 391
11.2 Nutritional Qualities of Sweetpotato 393
11.3 Phytonutrient Improvements of Sweetpotato 396
10.3.1 Sweetpotato Improvement for ß-Carotene 396
10.3.2 Sweetpotato Improvement for Anthocyanins and Phenolics 397
10.3.3 Other Nutrient Improvements 399
11.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 399
Acknowledgements 400
References 400
12 Improvement of Glucosinolate in Cruciferous Crops 407 Huiying Miao, Bo Sun, Yanting Zhao, Hongmei Qian, Congxi Cai, Jiaqi Chang, Mingdan Deng, Xin Zhang and Qiaomei Wang 407
List of Abbreviations 407
12.1 Introduction 408
12.2 Glucosinolate Breakdown 408
12.2.1 Glucosinolate Breakdown Upon Tissue Damage 409
12.2.2 Glucosinolate Breakdown in Living Plant Cell 410
12.2.3 Glucosinolate Hydrolysis in Mammalian 411
12.3 Biological Functions of Glucosinolates and Their Hydrolysis Products 411
12.3.1 Anticarcinogenic Mechanism 411
12.3.2 Other Chemopeventive Effects 413
12.3.3 Adverse Effects 413
12.4 Glucosinolate Biosynthesis 414
12.4.1 Side-Chain Elongation 414
12.4.2 Formation of Core Glucosinolate Structure 414
12.4.3 Secondary Modifications 416
12.4.4 Regulators of Glucosinolate Biosynthetic Pathway 416
12.5 Metabolic Engineering of Glucosinolates in Brassica Crops 418
12.6 Glucosinolate Accumulation under Pre-Harvest and Post-Harvest Handlings 421
12.6.1 Effects of Light on Glucosinolate Accumulation 422
12.6.2 Chemical Regulation of Glucosinolate Accumulation 423
12.6.3 Glucosinolate Changes upon Post-Harvest Handlings 427
12.7 Conclusions and Future Prospects 432
Acknowledgements 433
References 433
13 Development of the Transgenic Rice Accumulating Flavonoids in Seed by Metabolic Engineering 451 Yuko Ogo and Fumio Takaiwa
13.1 Introduction 451
13.2 Production of Flavonoids in Rice Seed by Ectopic Expression of the Biosynthetic Enzymes 454
13.3 Production of Flavonoids in Rice Seed by Ectopic Expression of the Transcription Factors 458
13.4 Characterisation of Flavonoids in Transgenic Rice Seed by LC-MS-based Metabolomics 460
13.5 Future Prospects 461
References 463
14 Nutrient Management for High Efficiency Sweetpotato Production 471 Yong-Chun Zhang, Ji-Dong Wang, Yan-Xi Shi and Dai-Fu Ma
14.1 Patterns of Growth and Development and Nutrient Absorption in Sweetpotato 471
14.1.1 Area under Sweetpotato 471
14.1.2 Growth Characteristics 471
14.1.3 Nutrient Requirements 472
14.1.4 Factors Affecting Nutrient Absorption 472
14.2 Screening of High Efficient of Potassium Uptake and Utilised Genotypes 474
14.2.1 Potassium Deficiency 474
14.2.2 Potassium Use Efficiency and Utilisation Efficiency 476
14.2.3 Screening of High Uptake Efficiency Genotypes 476
14.2.4 Screening of High Use Efficiency Genotypes 478
14.3 Effect of Fertilisers 480
14.3.1 Effect of Nitrogen Application 480
14.3.2 Effect of Phosphorus Application 482
14.3.3 Effect of Potassium Application 482
14.3.4 Effect of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium Application on Yield 483
14.4 Balanced Fertiliser Management in Sweetpotato at Sishui, Shandong: A Case Study 483
14.4.1 General Description of Area 483
14.4.2 Major Steps Towards Balanced Application of Fertilisers 485
14.4.3 Establishment and Application of an Expert Consultation System 491
14.5 Application of Fertilisers Through Drip Irrigation ('Fertigation') 493
14.5.1 Effect of Supplying Fertilisers Through Drip Irrigation on Sweetpotato 494
14.5.2 Input/output Ratio in Application of Fertilisers Through Drip Irrigation 495
Acknowledgements 495
References 495
Index 499
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