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Preface xv
Acknowledgments xxiii
Section 1 Entrepreneurship: Theory and Research
1a: Understanding Entrepreneurship 1
1 A Future of Entrepreneurship Research: Domain, Data, Theory, and Impact 3Per Davidsson
Introduction 3
Narrowing and Broadening the Field 3
Richer, Better, and More Varied Data 6
The Quest for Increased Theoretical Precision 7
Abstraction, Conceptual Clarity, and Operationalization 9
Sample Size, Data Quality, Statistical Significance, and Practical Relevance 12
Expanding the null hypothesis 13
Stating predictions as comparisons 13
Developing non-nil predictions 13
Specifying other than linear functional forms 13
Recognizing Context 13
Increased Demands for Practical Relevance 14
Conclusion 17
References 17
2 Entrepreneurship as a Process: Empirical Evidence for Entrepreneurial Engagement Levels 25Peter van der Zwan and Roy Thurik
Introduction 25
Merits of Entrepreneurship as a Process 27
Three Stylized Facts 28
Latent Entrepreneurship 29
Different Roles Throughout the Process 29
Country Differences 30
Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research 31
References 33
3 Types and Roles of Productive Entrepreneurship: A Conceptual Study 37Sander Wennekers and André van Stel
Introduction 37
Ensuing Research Questions 39
Methodology 39
Typologies and Types 39
From Typologies/Dimensions to Major Types 41
Twelve major types of entrepreneurship 43
Further Reduction to Four Main Types 44
Entrepreneurial Roles 45
General Entrepreneurial Roles 45
Specific Entrepreneurial Roles 46
Intermediary Effects and Final Contributions 50
Intermediate Effects 51
Final Contributions 54
Causal Chains per Main Type of Entrepreneurship: A Synthesis 57
Ambitious Innovators 57
Ambitious Replicators/Adapters 58
Solo Self-Employed 59
Managerial Employers (Rest Group) 60
Discussion and Conclusions 61
Summarizing and Interpreting the Main Findings 61
Implications for Research 62
Implications for Policy 63
Conclusion 65
References 65
4 Toward a Theory of Entrepreneurial Behavior 71Bruce T. Teague and William B. Gartner
Introduction 71
The Current State of Entrepreneurial Behavior Scholarship 72
(Re)defining Entrepreneurial Behavior 73
Defining Behavior 73
Defining Entrepreneurial Behavior 74
The Role of Behavior in Existing Theories and Frameworks 76
A Theory of Enterpreneurial Behavior 78
Behavioral Repertoire 80
Sources of Behavioral Variation 81
Level of Mastery 83
Implications of a Theory of Entrepreneurial Behavior 84
Toward an Entrepreneurial Behavior Research Agenda 85
Next Steps 86
Conclusions 87
References 88
Section 2 The Individual: Psychology of Entrepreneurship 95
5 The Psychology of Entrepreneurship: A Selective Review and a Path Forward 97Kelly G. Shaver and Amy E. Davis
Introduction 97
Why Ask Why? 97
The Personality Approach 98
Single Traits 98
Achievement Motivation 98
Risk Propensity 99
Broad Sets of Dimensions 100
Inventories of Traits 100
Latent Dimensions 101
The Social Cognition Approach 102
Career Reasons 103
Attribution Processes 104
Social Cognitive Theories 104
Expectancy Theory 105
Theory of Planned Behavior 105
Entrepreneurial Teams 106
Approaches to Teams 106
Team Structure 107
Toward a More Inclusive Future 107
Culturally Inclusive and Specific 108
Gender 108
Race and Ethnicity 108
Life Course and Personal Context 108
Country of Origin 109
Methodologically Inclusive and Specific 109
Theoretically Precise 109
Multiple Dimensions 110
Replication 110
Teams Over Time 110
Conclusion 111
References 111
6 Tools Entrepreneurs Need for Converting Dreams To Reality-And Achieving Success 119Robert A. Baron
Introduction 119
Motivation: What Goals Do Entrepreneurs Seek 120
Cognitive Tools: Creativity, Opportunity Recognition, and Avoiding Cognitive Traps 121
Opportunity Recognition of Creation: Recognizing or Creating Practical Uses of Ideas 122
The Personal Side of Entrepreneurial Success: Characteristics and Skills That Contribute to Success 125
Personal Characteristics: Self-Efficacy, the "Big Five," and Willingness to Improvise 126
From Desire to Achievement: The Role of Self-Regulation 127
Passion: Deep, Emotional Commitment to Entrepreneurship and the Roles it Involves 128
The Social Side of Entrepreneurial Success II: Forming High Quality Social Networks and Getting Along With Others 129
How do Entrepreneurs Build their Social Networks? 130
Dealing with Adversity-and Failure 131
Coping With Stress 132
Psychological Capital 132
Dealing with Business Failure: When One Dream Ends Another (Should) Begin 133
Putting it All Together: The Successful Entrepreneur's Tool Kit 133
Tools for Changing the World-or at Least Some Corner of it 134
References 136
7 Creativity and Entrepreneurship: A Process Perspective 139Maike Lex and Michael M. Gielnik
Introduction 139
Creativity and Entrepreneurship: A Conceptual Differentiation 140
The Effect of Creativity on Entrepreneurship 141
Toward a Cumulative Process Model of Creativity in Entrepreneurship 143
Key Assumptions of the Cumulative Process Model 145
Creativity and its Underlying Components 145
The Entrepreneurial Process and its Constituting Phases 145
An Ambidexterity Perspective on Creativity in the Entrepreneurial Process 147
A Cumulative Process Model on Creativity in Entrepreneurship 149
Prelaunch 149
Launch 151
Postlaunch 154
The Cumulative Process Model: A Summary 157
An Interactionist Perspective on Creativity in Entrepreneurship 157
Practical Implications: Promoting Creativity to Promote Entrepreneurship 159
Future Research 161
Conclusion 162
References 163
8 The Dark Side of the Entrepreneurial Personality: Undesirable or Maladaptive Traits and Behaviors Associated with Entrepreneurs 173Angelo S. DeNisi and Benjamin N. Alexander
Introduction 173
Recent Interest and Older Views 174
Entrepreneurial Personality and Entrepreneurship Outcomes 175
Personality and Entrepreneurial Intentions 175
Personality and Entrepreneurial Success 177
Broader Impact 179
Future Research on the Dark Side of the Entrepreneurial Personality 180
Untangling Outcomes and Trait Phenomena 180
Basic Issues 182
Conclusion 183
References 184
9 Female Entrepreneurship and IQ 187R.W. Hafer
Introduction 187
Measuring Female Entrepreneurship and IQ 188
The Female Entrepreneurship Index 188
National IQ 190
The Model and Data 191
Regression Results 194
Robustness Tests 195
Caveats 197
Conclusions and Policy Implications 198
References 198
Appendix A 201
Appendix B 204
Acknowledgments 204
10 The Person in Social Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Review of Research on the social Entrepreneurial Personality 205Ute Stephan and Andreana Drencheva
Introduction 205
Theoretical Background 206
Social Entrepreneurship 206
Personality 207
Review Approach and Overview of the Reviewed Studies 207
Review Findings 208
Motivation 208
General values, motives, interests 211
Specific motives 213
Traits 216
Identity 217
Leadership and Managerial Skills 218
Discussion and Opportunities for Future Research 220
Building on Strengths and Insights of the Current Research 222
References 223
Acknowledgment 229
11 An Individual Differences Approach to Studying Entrepreneurial Tendencies 231Gorkan Ahmetoglu and Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic
Introduction 231
The Pillars of Individual Differences Psychology 232
The Psychological Approach to Entrepreneurship 233
A Critical Evaluation of the Psychological Approach to Entrepreneurship 234
A Critical Evaluation of the Group Differences Approach 234
A Critical Evaluation of Comparisons Between More and Less Successful Entrepreneurs 236
An Individual Differences Approach to Understanding Entrepreneurial Tendencies 236
(Re)defining Entrepreneurial Tendencies 237
The Practical Importance of Theoretical Preciseness 238
Recommendations for Researching Entrepreneurial Tendencies 239
How Do We Assess Entrepreneurial Tendencies? 240
How Do General Entrepreneurial Tendencies Manifest in Contextual Behavior? 242
Classification of Entrepreneurial Behaviors 242
How Do General Entrepreneurial Tendencies and Contextual Behavior Manifest in Entrepreneurial Output? 245
Discussion 247
Implications for Entrepreneurship Research 248
Implications Beyond Business Creation 249
Other Considerations 249
Existing and Future Research 250
Conclusion 251
References 251
Section 2a: Genetics of Entrepreneurship 257
12 Biology and Entrepreneurship 259Ahmed Nofal, Nicos Nicolaou, and Noni Symeonidou
Introduction 259
Genetics and Entrepreneurship 260
Quantitative Genetics in Entrepreneurship 260
Tendency to Engage in Entrepreneurship 260
Genetic Influences on Physiology 261
Genetic Covariation with Individual Attributes 261
Gene X Environment Interactions 262
Gene X Environment Correlations 262
Opportunity Recognition 262
Entrepreneurial Intention 262
Entrepreneurial Performance 263
Molecular Genetics in Entrepreneurship 263
Candidate-Gene Studies 263
Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) 264
Hormones in Entrepreneurship 265
Physiology in Entrepreneurship 266
Neuroscience in Entrepreneurship 266
Quantitative Electroencephalogram 267
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 267
Conclusion 267
References 268
13 "Born, Not Made" and Other Beliefs About Entrepreneurial Ability 273Daniel P. Forbes
Introduction 273
"Born, Not Made": Beliefs and Evidence 274
Understanding How People Think About Entrepreneurs 277
Essentialist Lay Beliefs 277
Genetic Essentialist Lay Beliefs About Entrepreneurs 278
Born-Not-Made and General Beliefs About Entrepreneurial Ability 280
Implications of Belief in Born-Not-Made 280
Implications for the Judgments People Make About Their Own Entrepreneurial Abilities 281
Implications for the Judgments People Make About Others' Entrepreneurial Abilities 283
Discussion 284
References 286
Acknowledgments 291
Section 3 The Organization: Corporate Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Teams
3a: The Organization 293
14 Corporate Entrepreneurship & Innovation: Today's Leadership Challenge 295Donald F. Kuratko
Introduction 295
What Constitutes the Domain of Corporate Entrepreneurship? 296
The Importance of a Climate Conducive for Innovative Activity 298
Managerial Levels and Contributions to Entrepreneurial Efforts 300
Ingredients for an Effective Corporate Entrepreneurial Strategy 302
Challenges with Implementation of Corporate Entrepreneurship 304
Future Expectations 305
References 307
Section 3b: Entrepreneurial Teams 313
15 Unraveling the Black Box of New Venture Team Processes 315Ekaterina S. Bjornali, Mirjam Knockaert, Nicolai Foss, Daniel Leunbach and Truls Erikson
Introduction 315
The New Venture Team as a Focal Object of Inquiry 316
Internal Factors 316
External Factors 317
Disentangling NVT "Processes" in the Input-Processes-Outcome Framework 318
Toward a Framework for Studying NVT Processes 318
Prefounding Phase 319
Postfounding phase 319
Selected Theories Within the Theoretical Foundations 321
Faultline Theory 321
Future Research Directions 324
Behavioral Integration and Shared Cognition 324
Future Research Directions 325
Shared Leadership 326
Future Research Directions 327
Creativity and Imagination 328
Future Research Directions 329
Organizational and Team Justice 330
Future Research Directions 331
Transactive Memory Systems 332
Future Research Directions 332
Measuring New Venture Team Processes 333
Methodological Issues in NVT Studies 333
Collinearity 334
Dominant Survey Method 334
Cross-Sectional Designs 334
Meeting Methodological Challenges 335
Improving Survey Instruments 335
Simulation Exercises: Agent-Based Modeling 335
Neurostudies 336
Towards a Mixed Methods Approach 337
Concluding Remarks 337
References 338
Section 4 National and International Entrepreneurship
4a: National Entrepreneurship 349
16 The Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship and the Strategic Management of Places 351David B. Audretsch and Erik E. Lehmann
Introduction 351
The Challenge of Inequality of Places 353
Globalization and Regionalization 353
The Mediating Role of Entrepreneurship in Transforming Places 353
Transforming Regions to Places 355
The Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship 356
Defining the Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship 356
The Emergence of the Knowledge Spillover Theory of Entrepreneurship 358
Knowledge Spillover Theory and Places 360
The Knowledge Filter and the Strategic Management of Place 363
Absorptive Capacity of Place 366
Emergence of a Strategic Management Approach of Place 368
Conclusions 371
References 372
17 The Effect of New Business Formation on Regional Development 379Michael Fritsch
Introduction 379
The Basic Relationships 380
The Magnitude of Direct and Indirect Effects 383
Differences in the Contribution of New Business Formation to Economic Growth Across Industries and Regions 385
The Persistence of Regional Entrepreneurship 389
Policy Implications 391
Avenues for Further Research 392
Final Remarks 396
References 396
18 National Culture and Entrepreneurship 401Gabriella Cacciotti and James C. Hayton
Introduction 401
Method 401
Conceptualization of National Culture in Entrepreneurship Research 402
National Culture as Values 403
Definition 403
Measures 403
Outcomes 404
National Culture as Norms and Practices 408
Definition 408
Measures 409
Outcomes 410
Summary 412
Directions for Future Research 414
Conclusion 416
References 416
19 Management of Entrepreneurial Ecosystems 423Erkko Autio and Jonathan Levie
Introduction 423
Entrepreneurial Ecosystems: Definitions and Policy Challenges 425
Management of Complex Socioecological Ecosystems 428
Stakeholder Consultation 429
Stakeholder Participation 430
Scottish Innovation-Based Entrepreneurial Ecosystem 431
Method 431
REAP Scotland 432
Field Trial in Scotland 435
Case Reflection 438
Discussion 442
Conclusion 445
References 446
Section 4b: International Entrepreneurship 451
20 International Entrepreneurship and Networks 453Salman Ahmad and Pavlos Dimitratos
Introduction 453
International Entrepreneurship: Definition 454
Network Perspective 456
Networks and International Entrepreneurship 457
Important Themes: Intersection of International Entrepreneurship and Networks Research 458
Network Creation and International Entrepreneurship 460
Network Types and International Entrepreneurship 460
Network Structures and International Entrepreneurship 463
Network Dynamics and International Entrepreneurship 464
Network's Benefits and International Entrepreneurship 465
Theoretical Basis: Intersection of International Entrepreneurship Networks Research 468
Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) 469
Organizational Learning 469
Resource-Based View 470
Social Capital 470
Knowledge-Based View 471
Other Theories 471
Practical Implications 472
Future Research 472
Conclusion 472
References 473
Index 485
Although definitions of entrepreneurship vary, few dispute its importance in bringing positive change to the world. It is no wonder, therefore, that the academic field of entrepreneurship permeates a broad spectrum of disciplines. So much so, that the study of entrepreneurship has become an integral part of economics, management, and business studies. More recently, there has also been growing interest in entrepreneurship from the field of psychology. However, despite the large amount of interdisciplinary research and collaboration around this subject, a great deal of opportunities remain. Globalization and changes in technology are impacting every aspect of life, with entrepreneurship often driving such changes. Indeed, the impact of entrepreneurship is felt at many levels, including the individual, organizational, regional, national, and international.
Gaining a deeper understanding of the entrepreneurship phenomenon is no doubt of fundamental value to businesses, governments, and society at large. To that end, the aim of the current handbook is to provide an overview of the academic research in this field. This book contains chapters from leading researchers in the field to provide a thorough foundation for knowledge exchange around entrepreneurship. It is an attempt to provide the latest thinking around some of the most important areas of focus in the field: individuals, teams, and organizations who engage in entrepreneurship, and their regional, national, and international impact.
Thus this handbook intends to demonstrate the importance of entrepreneurship as a research discipline, highlighting what is known as well as what is still unknown, so as to inspire and guide future research in this area. This volume comprises four parts, each with a unique view on entrepreneurship on differing levels-Entrepreneurship: Theory and Research; The Individual: Psychology of Entrepreneurship; The Organization: Corporate Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Teams; and National and International Entrepreneurship. With contributions from nearly 40 experts, this book was written for scholars and students with an interest in entrepreneurship. This volume may also be of interest to audiences of related fields such as psychology, business strategy, finance and venture capital, organizational behavior, and economics.
1 A Future of Entrepreneurship Research: Domain, Data, Theory, and Impact In this chapter Per Davidsson offers observations and speculations about current and possible future developments in the field of entrepreneurship research. The main topics focused on include the delineation of the "entrepreneurship research" field and community; data and data sources; the quest for increased theoretical precision, and demands for practical relevance and real-world impact. Davidsson goes on to conclude that the future of entrepreneurship research offers both challenges and opportunities, and he predicts that it will remain an exciting field for scholarly study.
2 Entrepreneurship as a Process: Empirical Evidence for Entrepreneurial Engagement Levels In this chapter Peter van der Zwan and Roy Thurik focus on several stages of the entrepreneurial process. These stages both incorporate the "cognitive" and "behavioral" type of stages. They highlight that at a certain moment in time an individual is engaged in any of these stages, and for this individual there is a likelihood of moving to the next stage. Implicit in this model are thresholds that indicate the transition from one stage to another. They argue that several strands of literature are integrated in this particular process, such as the literature on entrepreneurial intentions, nascent entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial survival. Van der Zwan and Thurik combine these streams of literature and show that the individual-level determinants of entrepreneurship deserve a separate treatment depending on the stage in the entrepreneurial process. They show evidence that the empirically validated determinants of self-employment or entrepreneurship differ across the several stages in the entrepreneurial process.
3 Types and Roles of Productive Entrepreneurship: A Conceptual Study Sander Wennekers and André van Stel recognize in this chapter that there are three recurring questions that appear in literature: What is entrepreneurship? What economic and social contributions does entrepreneurship make? How does entrepreneurship make these contributions? Many interesting answers have been given to these questions, but these answers do not result in a clear-cut, unambiguous picture. On the contrary, confusion prevails. Wennekers and van Stel aim to dispel this confusion by assessing which different dimensions and which major types of entrepreneurship can be identified. They then go on to decipher which entrepreneurial roles are being fulfilled by these major types. Wennekers and van Stel finally address how the causal chains from these entrepreneurial roles are linked to their final contributions.
4 Toward a Theory of Entrepreneurial Behavior Bruce T. Teague and William B. Gartner begin this chapter by reviewing several of the most prominent entrepreneurship frameworks in order to demonstrate that the entrepreneurship field lacks a theory of entrepreneurial behavior. However, they suggest that each of these existing frameworks would benefit from, and be complemented by, an entrepreneurial behavioral theory. Drawing from multiple streams of research, Teague and Gartner offer a preliminary theory of entrepreneurial behavior. Several propositions are offered which are then followed by recommendations for new research opportunities.
5 The Psychology of Entrepreneurship: A Selective Review and a Path Forward Kelly G. Shaver and Amy E. Davis highlight that the creation of a new business is not an event, but a process undertaken by one person or by a team of people. As many writers have acknowledged, the cognitive processes, personal motives, actions performed, and interpersonal processes involved are all fair topics for psychological inquiry. In this selective review Shaver and Davis show how the "psychology of entrepreneurship" has evolved from a relatively simplistic beginning to a recent view that is much more highly nuanced. They first describe several of the ideas borrowed from psychology (mostly, though not exclusively, from personality and social psychology) that have been adapted for use in entrepreneurship. They then address the issues that arise when "the founder" changes to a "founding team." Finally, Shaver and Davis conclude with an argument for greater complexity in future work on entrepreneurial psychology.
6 Tools Entrepreneurs Need for Converting Dreams to Reality-And Achieving Success In this chapter Robert A. Baron seeks to uncover some key in entrepreneurial success on the basis of current knowledge. To accomplish this task, in each section of the chapter Baron considers one component of why entrepreneurs fail or succeed, describing extant evidence concerning its importance. From this an overall picture of the personal ingredients in entrepreneurial success emerges. Despite many factors that contribute to an entrepreneur's success or failures being beyond the control of entrepreneurs, Baron adds to existing evidence and theory by suggesting that entrepreneurs themselves do indeed play a central role in the entrepreneurial process.
7 Creativity and Entrepreneurship: A Process Perspective Maike Lex and Michael M. Gielnik open this chapter with a reminder that creativity has often been described in literature as a key predictor of entrepreneurial success. Yet, there is surprisingly little empirical research on the effect of creativity on entrepreneurial success with some of the studies yielding nonsignificant results. In this chapter, they review the literature on creativity and entrepreneurship and argue that it has in general adopted a relatively basic approach to the main effects of creativity on entrepreneurship. Gielnik and Lex go beyond this basic approach by adopting a more differentiated perspective on the role of creativity in entrepreneurship. Specifically, they argue that both creativity and entrepreneurship comprise different components and phases which need to be taken into account in order to fully understand the effect of creativity in entrepreneurship. In addition, they posit that it is important to consider contextual factors which systematically promote or hinder the effect of creativity within the entrepreneurial process. Building on these assumptions, they develop a theoretical model on the role of creativity in the entrepreneurial process. Their model integrates past theoretical and empirical research into a comprehensive framework and illuminates both the positive and negative effects of creativity in the different phases of the entrepreneurial process.
8 The Dark Side of the Entrepreneurial Personality: Undesirable or Maladaptive Traits and Behaviors Associated with Entrepreneurs In this chapter Angelo S. DeNisi and Benjamin N. Alexander endeavor to extend the arguments made in recent papers on the "dark side" of the entrepreneurial personality and to integrate additional perspectives germane to the issue. DeNisi and Alexander examine the distinct mechanisms proposed in recent commentaries and also discuss the different outcomes that might be associated with dark-side...
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